The Project Gutenberg eBook of Descriptive Catalogue of Photographs of North American Indians, by W. H. Jackson.

The collection of photographic portraits of North American Indians described in the following "Catalogue" is undoubtedly the largest and most valuable one extant. It has been made at great labor and expense, during a period of about twenty-five years, and now embraces over one thousand negatives, representing no less than twenty-five tribes. Many of the individuals portrayed have meanwhile died; others, from various causes, are not now accessible; the opportunity of securing many of the subjects, such as scenes and incidents, has of course passed away. The collection being thus unique, and not to be reproduced at any expenditure of money, time, or labor, its value for ethnological purposes cannot easily be over-estimated.

Now that the tribal relations of these Indians are fast being successively sundered by the process of removal to reservations, which so greatly modifies the habits and particularly the style of dress of the aborigines, the value of such a graphic record of the past increases year by year; and there will remain no more trustworthy evidence of what the Indians have been than that afforded by these faithful sun-pictures, many of which represent the villages, dwellings, and modes of life of these most interesting people, and historical incidents of the respective tribes, as well as the faces, dresses, and accoutrements of many prominent individuals.

Those who have never attempted to secure photographs and measurements or other details of the physique of Indians, in short, any reliable statistics of individuals or bands, can hardly realize the obstacles to be overcome. The American Indian is extremely superstitious, and every attempt to take his picture is rendered difficult if not entirely frustrated by his deeply-rooted belief that the process places some portion of himself in the power of the white man, and his suspicion that such control may be used to his injury. No prescribed regulations for the taking of photographs, therefore, are likely to be fully carried[Pg iv] out. As a rule, front and profile views have been secured whenever practicable. Usually it is only when an Indian is subjected to confinement that those measurements of his person which are suitable for anthropological purposes can be secured. In most cases the Indian will not allow his person to be handled at all, nor submit to any inconvenience whatever. Much tact and perseverance are required to overcome his superstitious notions, and in many cases, even of the most noted chiefs of several tribes, no portrait can be obtained by any inducement whatever. If, therefore, the collection fails to meet the full requirements of the anthropologist, it must be remembered that the obstacles in the way of realizing his ideal of a perfect collection are insurmountable.

About two hundred of the portraits, or one-fifth of the whole collection, have been derived from various sources, and most of these are pictures of Indians composing the several delegations that have visited Washington from time to time during the past ten years. Such individuals are usually among the most prominent and influential members of the respective tribes, of which they consequently furnish the best samples. The greater portion of the whole collection is derived from the munificent liberality of William Blackmore, esq., of London, England, the eminent anthropologist who has for many years studied closely the history, habits, and manners of the North American Indians. The Blackmore portion of the collection consists of a number of smaller lots from various sources; and it is Mr. Blackmore's intention to enlarge it to include, if possible, all the tribes of the North American continent.

The entire collection, at the present time consisting of upward of a thousand negatives, represents ten leading "families" of Indians, besides seven independent tribes, the families being divisible into fifty-four "tribes," subdivision of which gives forty-three "bands." The collection continues to increase as opportunity offers.

The present "Catalogue" prepared by Mr. W. H. Jackson, the well-known and skilful photographer of the Survey, is far more than a mere enumeration of the negatives. It gives in full, yet in concise and convenient form, the information which the Survey has acquired respecting the subjects of the pictures, and is believed to represent an acceptable contribution to anthropological literature.

PREFACE.

The following Descriptive Catalogue is intended to systematize the collection of Photographic Portraits of Indians now in the possession of the United States Geological Survey of the Territories, and to place on record all the information we have been able to obtain of the various individuals and scenes represented. It is of course far from complete; but it is a beginning, and every new fact that comes to light will be added to what has already been secured. This information has been gathered from many sources, principally from Indian delegates visiting Washington, and by correspondence with agents and others living in the Indian country.

Particular attention has been paid to proving the authenticity of the portraits of the various individuals represented, and it is believed that few, if any, mistakes occur in that respect.

The historical notices are mainly compilations from standard works on the subject.

All of the following portraits and views are photographed direct from nature, and are in nearly every case from the original plates, the exceptions being good copies from original daguerreotypes or photographs that are not now accessible.

The portraits made under the supervision of the Survey are generally accompanied by measurements that are as nearly accurate as it has been possible to make them.

The pictures vary in size from the ordinary small card to groups on plates 16 by 20 inches square. The majority, however, are on plates 6-1/2 by 8-1/2 inches square; these are usually trimmed to 4 by 5-1/2 inches, and mounted on cabinet cards.

All the photographs are numbered upon their faces, and as these numbers do not occur in regular order in the text a Numerical Index is appended, by means of which the name of any picture, and the page on which the subject is treated, may be readily found.

ADVERTISEMENT.

Miscellaneous Publications No. 5, entitled "Descriptive Catalogue of the Photographs of the United States Geological Survey of the Territories for the years 1869 to 1873, inclusive," published in 1874, contains, on pages 67-83, a "Catalogue of Photographs of Indians, [etc.]" This, however, is a mere enumeration of the negatives then in the possession of the survey, and is now superseded by the present independent publication.[Pg 1]

CATALOGUE OF PHOTOGRAPHS OF NORTH
AMERICAN INDIANS.

HISTORY OF FAMILIES, TRIBES, AND INDIVIDUALS.

I. ALGONKINS.

Early in the seventeenth century, the Algonkins were the largest family of North American Indians within the present limits of the United States, extending from Newfoundland to the Mississippi, and from the waters of the Ohio to Hudson's Bay and Lake Winnipeg. Northeast and northwest of them were the Eskimos and the Athabascas; the Dakotas bounded them on the west, and the Mobilian tribes, Catawbas, Natchez, &c., on the south. Within this region also dwelt the Iroquois and many detached tribes from other families. All the tribes of the Algonkins were nomadic, shifting from place to place as the fishing and hunting upon which they depended required. There has been some difficulty in properly locating the tribe from which the family has taken its name, but it is generally believed they lived on the Ottawa River, in Canada, where they were nearly exterminated by their enemies, the Iroquois. The only remnant of the tribe at this time is at the Lake of the Two Mountains.

Of the large number of tribes forming this family, many are now extinct, others so reduced and merged into neighboring tribes as to be lost, while nearly all of the rest have been removed far from their original hunting-grounds. The Lenni Lenape, from the Delaware, are now leading a civilized life far out on the great plains west of the Missouri, and with them are the Shawnees from the south and the once powerful Pottawatamies, Ottawas, and Miamis from the Ohio Valley. Of the many nations forming this great family, we have a very full representation in the following catalogue, about equally divided between the wild hunters and the civilized agriculturists.

1. CHEYENNES.

"This nation has received a variety of names from travellers and the neighboring tribes, as Shyennes, Shiennes, Cheyennes,[Pg 6] Chayennes, Sharas, Shawhays, Sharshas, and by the different bands of Dakotas, Shaí-en-a or Shai-é-la. With the Blackfeet, they are the most western branch of the great Algonkin family. When first known, they were living on the Chayenne or Cayenne River, a branch of the Red River of the North, but were driven west of the Mississippi by the Sioux, and about the close of the last century still farther west across the Missouri, where they were found by those enterprising travelers Lewis and Clark in 1803. On their map attached to their report they locate them near the eastern face of the Black Hills, in the valley of the great Sheyenne River, and state their number at 1,500 souls." Their first treaty with the United States was made in 1825, at the mouth of the Teton River. They were then at peace with the Dakotas, but warring against the Pawnees and others. Were then estimated, by Drake, to number 3,250.

During the time of Long's expedition to the Rocky Mountains, in 1819 and 1820, a small portion of the Cheyennes seem to have separated themselves from the rest of their nation on the Missouri, and to have associated themselves with the Arapahoes who wandered about the tributaries of the Platte and Arkansas, while those who remained affiliated with the Ogalallas, these two divisions remaining separated until the present time. Steps are now being taken, however, to bring them together on a new reservation in the Indian Territory.

Up to 1862, they were generally friendly to the white settlers, when outbreaks occurred, and then for three or four years a costly and bloody war was carried on against them, a notable feature of which was the Sand Creek or Chivington massacre, November 29, 1864. "Since that time there has been constant trouble. * * * In '67, General Hancock burned the village of the Dog Soldiers, on Pawnee Fork, and another war began, in which General Custer defeated them at Washita, killing Black Kettle and 37 others." The northern bands have been generally at peace with the whites, resisting many overtures to join their southern brethren.

2. CHIPPEWAS.

Migrating from the East late in the sixteenth or early in the seventeenth century, the Chippewas, or Ojibwas, settled first about the Falls of Saint Mary, from which point they pushed still farther westward, and eventually compelled the Dakotas to relinquish their ancient hunting-grounds about the headwaters of the Mississippi and of the Red River of the North. Were first known to the French, about 1640, who called them Sauteux, from the place of their residence about Sault Ste. Marie, a name still applied to them by the Canadian French. They were then living in scattered bands on the banks of Lake Superior and Lake Huron, and at war with the Foxes, Iroquois, and Dakotas, becoming thereby much reduced in numbers. Were firm allies of the French in all of their operations against the English, and took a prominent part in Pontiac's uprising. During the revolutionary war they were hostile to[Pg 8] the colonists, but made a treaty of peace with them at its close. They again sided with the English in the war of 1812, but joined in a general pacification with a number of other tribes in 1816. Like other tribes, they gradually ceded their lands to the Government, receiving in return annuities and goods, until in 1851 all but a few bands, retaining but moderate reservations, had removed west of the Mississippi.

"The Chippewas, now numbering 19,606, formerly ranged over Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota, and with common interests, and acknowledging more or less the leadership of one controlling mind, formed a homogeneous and powerful nation; a formidable foe to the Sioux, with whom they waged incessant warfare, which was checked only by the removal of the Minnesota Sioux to Dakota after the outbreak of 1863."

The collecting of the Chippewas upon thirteen reservations, scattered over the above-named States, under five different agencies, has so modified the esprit du corps of the tribe that, though speaking the same language and holding the same traditions and customs, the bands located in different sections of the country have few interests and no property in common, and little influence or intercourse with each other. The agency has taken the place of the nation, and is in turn developing the individual man, who, owning house, stock, and farm, has learned to look solely to his own exertions for support. No tribe by unswerving loyalty deserves more of the Government, or is making, under favorable conditions, more gratifying progress; 9,850 of the tribe live in houses, 9,345 are engaged in agriculture and other civilized occupations; and 13,202 wear citizen's dress. Fifty-seven per cent. of their subsistence is obtained by their own labor, mainly in farming; for the rest, they depend on game and fish, especially the latter, of which they readily obtain large quantities.

The Chippewas are extensively intermarried with the Ottawas, and are thrifty and worthy citizens of the United States, as are also those of Saginaw, and of Keewenaw Bay in Michigan. The Bad River, Red Cliff, Red Lake, and Mississippi bands are likewise making rapid progress in civilization. Of those which have made but little or no progress are the Leech Lake, White Earth, Mille Lac, and other scattered bands in remote and inaccessible regions of Minnesota and Wisconsin, the older chiefs resolutely opposing any attempt on the part of the younger men to begin a civilized life.[Pg 9]

1073. Me-jaw-key-osh. Something in the Air Gradually Falling to the Earth.Red Lake.

3. DELAWARES.

When first discovered by the whites, the Delawares were living on the banks of the Delaware, in detached bands under separate sachems, and called themselves Renappi—a collective term for men—or, as it is now written, Lenno Lenape. In 1616 the Dutch began trading with them, maintaining friendly relations most of the time, and buying so much of their land that they had to move inland for game and furs. Penn and his followers, succeeding, kept up the trade and bought large tracts of land, but the Indians claimed to have been defrauded and showed a reluctance to move. They then numbered about 6,000. With the assistance of the Indians of the Six Nations the authorities compelled the Delawares to retire. At the beginning of the Revolution there were none east of the Alleghanies. By treaty in 1789 lands were reserved to them between the Miami and Cuyahoga, and on the Muskingum. In 1818 the Delawares ceded all their lands to the Government and removed to White River, Missouri, to the number of 1,800, leaving a small number in Ohio. Another change followed eleven years after, when 1,000 settled by treaty on the Kansas and Missouri Rivers, the rest going south to Red River.

During the late civil war they furnished 170 soldiers out of an able-bodied male population of 201.

In 1866 sold their land to the railroad which ran across it, and buying land of the Cherokees, settled where the main body now resides, small bands being scattered about among the Wichitas and Kiowas.

In 1866, by a special treaty, they received and divided the funds held for their benefit, took lands in severalty, and ceased to be regarded as a tribe. They have given up their Indian ways and live in comfortable houses. Many of them are efficient farmers and good citizens. They are becoming so incorporated with other tribes that there has been no late enumeration made of them as a whole. During the late war they numbered 1,085.

4. MENOMONEES.

Were known to the French as early as 1640, and were then living on the Menomonee River, emptying into Green Bay, Wisconsin. Their name is that of the wild rice upon which they largely depend for their subsistence. This is one of the few tribes in the United States who have never been removed from their old home, and are still residing on the same spot where they were first known. Served with the French against the Foxes in 1712, and against the English up to 1763, participating in Braddock's defeat, battles of Fort William Henry and the Plains of Abraham. Were allies of the English during the Revolution, and also in the second war with Great Britain. In 1831 commenced ceding their lands to the Government for money payments, until they were finally located in 1854 in their present reservation in Shawano County, Wisconsin, consisting of 231,680 acres of very poor land. They are declining rapidly in numbers. In 1822 were estimated at 3,900; the present count makes them 1,522. Are now living in a civilized way, with a large proportion of their children attending school regularly. Their main dependence is upon the lumber trade, cutting during the last winter over 5,000,000 feet of logs, netting them $4 per 1,000.

5. MIAMIES.

In 1658 were found on Green Bay, Wisconsin, and in 1670 near the head of Fox River, and were then said to number 8,000 warriors, living in mat houses within a palisade. Their early history is full of their many engagements with Iroquois, Sioux, and the French, in all of which they lost heavily. Sided with the English in the revolutionary war, continuing hostile to the United States until 1815. They then numbered 3,000, but their wars had left them in a badly demoralized condition, leading to broils among themselves, in which nearly 500 perished in eighteen years. In 1835 a portion, numbering 384, were removed from Indiana to the south side of the Kansas River. By 1838 the Miamies remaining in Indiana, then numbering 1,100, sold the rest of their lands; and in 1846 500 of them removed to Kansas, where in twenty-two years they were reduced to 92. In 1873 their lands were sold, when most of the tribe confederated with the Peorias, a few remaining in Kansas as citizens. Are now very much scattered, with no agency of their own, and number, as near as can be ascertained, less than 100. The subjects of the following photographs are of mixed blood:

6. OTTAWAS.

When first discovered by the early French explorers were residing on the northwest shore of the peninsula of Michigan. After the defeat of the Hurons in 1649, they fled before the Iroquois to beyond the Mississippi, but were soon compelled to retrace their steps by the Dakotas, and finally settled at Mackinaw, where they joined the French in many of their operations and in their contest for Canada. At its close, Pontiac, head chief of the Detroit Ottawas, organized a great conspiracy for the destruction of the English, which was only partially successful. During the Revolution were with the English. At its close a long series of treaties followed, until, in 1833, those in[Pg 15] Michigan ceded their lands and removed south of the Missouri River. In 1836 those in Ohio sold their lands and removed to the Indian Territory and prospered, becoming citizens of the United States in 1867. In 1870 made another move to a new reservation of 25,000 acres near the Shawnees, where they are now living, reduced to 140. A large number of Ottawas are now living on the shore of Lake Superior, so intermarried and confederated with the Chippewas that there is no attempt at any distinction between them, the two combined numbering over 6,000. In Canada there are about 1,000 more, all self-supporting.

7. POTTAWATOMIES.

Early in 1600 were occupying the lower peninsula of Michigan in scattered bands, whence they were finally driven westward by the Iroquois, and settled about Green Bay. The French acquired much influence over them, whom they joined in their wars with the Iroquois. Joined Pontiac in his uprising in 1763. Hostile to colonists during the Revolution, but made a peace in 1795, joining the English again, however, in 1812. New treaties followed by which their lands were almost entirely conveyed away, until in 1838 a reserve was allotted them on the Missouri, to which 800 were removed. The whole tribe then numbered about 4,000, some bands of which had made considerable progress in civilization, while a part, called the Pottawatomies of the Prairie, were roving and pagan. Those in Kansas made rapid progress in civilization. In 1867, 1,400 out of 2,180 elected to become citizens and take their lands in severalty; the others held to their tribal organization, but disintegration set in and many became wanderers, some even going to Mexico. It is difficult at the present time to estimate their whole number, owing to their scattered condition. There are only 450 in the Indian Territory, under the care of the Indian Bureau, and in Michigan 60. The others are citizens or roaming in Mexico. Of this once numerous and powerful nation we have but a single illustration, viz:

8. SACS AND FOXES.

The Sacs, Sauks, or Saukies, as it has been variously written—a word meaning white clay—and the Foxes, or Outagamies, or more properly the Musquakkink, (Red Clay), are now as one tribe. They were first discovered settled about Green Bay, Wis., but their possessions extended westward, so that the larger part was beyond the Mississippi. They partly subdued and admitted into their alliance the Iowas, a Dakota tribe. By 1804 they had ceded all their lands east of the Mississippi, and settled on the Des Moines River, moving subsequently to the Osage, and most of these finally to the Indian Territory. In 1822 the united bands numbered 8,000, but are now reduced to a little more than 1,000, of whom 341 are still[Pg 17] in Iowa, 430 in the Indian Territory, 98 in Nebraska, and about 200 in Kansas. The Sacs and Foxes of the Mississippi in the Indian Territory have a reservation of 483,840 acres. Unsuccessful attempts have been made lately to induce those in Kansas to join them. Those in Iowa are living on a section of land purchased by themselves. The Sacs and Foxes of the Missouri have 4,863 acres of land in Nebraska, but it is proposed to remove them soon to the Indian Territory.

396, 691, 701. Wah-pah-nah-ka-na Kah. Bear Eating Acorns Up a Tree, or Geo. Gomez.

9. SHAWNEE.

The Shawnees or Shawanoes are an erratic tribe of Algonkin stock, supposed to have been one primarily with the Kickapoos. Were first discovered in Wisconsin, but moved eastwardly, and, coming in contact with the Iroquois south of Lake Erie, were driven to the banks of the Cumberland. Some passed thence into South Carolina and Florida, and, by the early part of the eighteenth century, had spread into Pennsylvania and New York. At the close of the Spanish and Eng[Pg 19]lish war those in Florida emigrated and joined the northern bands, and, again coming into contact with the Iroquois, were driven westward into Ohio. Joined in Pontiac's uprising in 1763, and rallied under the English flag during the Revolution. In 1795 the main body of the tribe were on the Scioto, but some had already crossed the Mississippi and others south. Those in Missouri ceded their lands to the Government in 1825, and those in Ohio in 1831, for new homes in the Indian Territory. In 1854 the main body in the Indian Territory disbanded their tribal organization and divided their lands in severalty.

The Eastern Shawnees are those who emigrated direct from Ohio to the Indian Territory, where they now are. They number 97, and are successful agriculturists.

The Absentee Shawnees are those who, thirty-five years since, seceded from the main portion of the tribe in Kansas and located in the northern part of the Indian Territory, where they have received no aid from Government, but are now in a highly prosperous condition. They number 563 at the present time.

10. PEQUOD.

Of the five principal nations of New England in 1674, the Pequods or Mohegans, the two being considered as one, were tribes of considerable influence and strength of numbers, claiming authority over all the Indians of the Connecticut Valley. Jonathan Edwards states that the language of the Stockbridge or Muhhekanew (Mohegan) was spoken throughout New England. Nearly every tribe had a different dialect, but the language was radically the same. Elliot's translation of the Bible is in a particular dialect of this language. The Stockbridges, so named from the place of their residence, was originally a part of the Housatonic tribe of Massachusetts, to whom the legislature of that State granted a section of land in 1736. They were subsequently removed to New Stockbridge and Brotherton, in Western New York, many other tribes of New England and also of New York joining them. They had good lands and fine farms, and were rapidly becoming worthy of citi[Pg 20]zenship, when, in 1857, they were removed to a reservation near Green Bay, Wisconsin, on which, their agent reported, no white man could obtain a comfortable livelihood by farming. They have been divided for some time into two bands, known as the "citizen" and "Indian" factions, the former having lived off from the reservation for the past twelve years. In 1875, 134 of the "citizens" received their per capita share of the tribal property, and became private citizens of the United States. The tribe has 118 members remaining.

II. ATHABASCAS.

A family of North American Indians, comprising two large divisions, one living in the British Possessions, between Hudson's Bay and the Pacific, and the other along the southern boundary of the United States, in Arizona, New Mexico, and Texas, with some smaller bands along the western coast, north of Oregon.

The name of the family is derived from Lake Athabasca, a Cree word, meaning "cords of hay." They are supposed by many to be of Tartar descent, and their language has been found to be somewhat analogous to that of Thibet. Their traditions point to an emigration from the West, over a series of[Pg 21] islands, and amid much snow and ice. The southern branch includes the nomadic Apaches, the industrious Navajos, and a small remnant of Lipans in Texas, numbering, in all, over 20,000.

1. APACHES.

One of the most numerous branches of Athabascan stock are the Apaches, a fierce, nomadic nation, roaming over the Territories of New Mexico and Arizona, and Sonora and Chihuahua. Always a scourge and a terror to settlers, they have held in check for many years the civilization of the country covered by their depredations. In 1831 Gregg wrote of them: "They are the most extensive and powerful, and yet the most vagrant, of all the savage nations that inhabit the interior of Northern Mexico. They are supposed to number 15,000 souls, although they are subdivided into various petty bands and are scattered over an immense tract of country. They never construct houses, but live in the ordinary wigwam or tent of skins and blankets. They manufacture nothing, cultivate nothing. They seldom resort to the chase, as their country is destitute of game, but seem to depend entirely upon pillage for the support of their immense population, at least 2,000 of which are warriors."

Steadily resisting all attempts at conversion by the missionaries, they gathered about them many of the disaffected tribes and made frequent descents upon missions and towns, ravaging, destroying, and completely depopulating many of them. Since the annexation of their territory to the United States they have caused much trouble, and an almost constant warfare has been kept up against them until quite recently. Successful military campaigns broke up their predatory habits, and since then the efforts which have been made to gather them upon reservations, where they could be cared for until capable of self-sustenance, are proving entirely successful. At the present time more than half the whole nation are on the San Carlos reservation in Arizona, where they have nearly 4,000 square miles, or over 2,500,000 acres, situated upon both sides of the Rio Gila, between the one hundred and ninth and one hundred and eleventh meridians, 400 acres of which are now under cultivation by Indian labor entirely, producing 10,000 bushels of potatoes, 2,000 bushels of corn, and large quantities of other vegetables. They draw their entire subsistence from the Government, but only in return for labor[Pg 22] performed, and under this law are doing much good in the way of making and repairing irrigating-ditches, clearing and fencing land, &c. Are now occupying 223 comfortable houses, built for them. "When it is considered that only 2,000 of these Indians have been on the reservation two years, most of whom were participants in the outbreaks of last year (1874); that the 1,400 Ponto, Yuma, and Mohave Apaches from Verde arrived in March last; and that the 1,800 Coyoteros from White Mountain agency arrived July last, after harvest, the above figures will be found a most striking exhibit of the results of the application of a firm control and common-sense treatment for one year."

Besides the San Carlos reservation in Arizona, there are two others in New Mexico, upon which are gathered most of the rest of the Apaches, with the exception of about 650 in the Indian Territory.

The Mescalero reservation, midway between the Rio Grande and the Pecos, contains some 570,000 acres, upon which are the Mescaleros and some other smaller bands, to the number of about 1,100. But little has been done in the way of civilizing them, and they depend almost entirely upon the Government for their subsistence.

The Jicarilla reservation, intended for the sub-tribe of that name, is of about the same dimensions as that of the Mescaleros, and lies between the San Juan River and the northern boundary-line of New Mexico. The Jicarillas, who number about 1,000, have not as yet been placed upon this reserve, but roam at will over the surrounding country, spending much of their time with the southern Utes, with whom they have intermarried to a considerable extent. They draw a portion of their subsistence from the Government and depend upon their own resources for the rest.

The Annual Report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs for 1875 subdivides and enumerates the Apaches as follows:

2. NAVAJOS.

A very numerous band of the Apache Nation inhabiting the mountains and plateaus of Arizona and New Mexico, between the San Juan and Little Colorado Rivers, ever since our first knowledge of them. The Spaniards early recognized their relation to the Apaches, although they differ totally from them in their industrious habits, being by far the most civilized of any tribe of Athabascan descent. They have evidently been quick to take advantage of their contact with the semi-civilized Pueblos and Moquis, and from them have acquired many useful arts—chiefly in learning to spin and weave. Their blankets, woven in looms, are of great excellence, and frequently bring from $25 to $100. They cultivate the soil extensively, raising large quantities of corn, squashes, melons, &c. Colonel Baker, in 1859, estimated their farms at 20,000 acres, evidently too large an estimate, as their agent's report for 1875 places the cultivated lands at only 6,000 acres. Their principal wealth, however, is in horses, sheep, and goats, having acquired them at an early day and fostered their growth, so that they now count their horses by the thousand, and their sheep by hundreds of thousands. Notwithstanding the excellence of their manufactures, their houses are rude affairs, called by the Spaniards jackals, and by themselves hogans—small conical huts of poles, covered with branches, and in winter with earth. Like the Apaches, they have made incessant war on the Mexicans, who have made many unsuccessful attempts to subjugate them. The expeditions against them on the part of the United States by Doniphan in 1846, Wilkes[Pg 27] in 1847, Newby in 1848, and Washington in 1849, were practically failures. Colonel Sumner established Fort Defiance in 1851, but was forced to retreat, and all other attempts to subdue them were defeated until the winter campaign in 1863, when Colonel Carson compelled them to remove to the Bosque Redondo, on the Pecos River, where 7,000 were held prisoners by the Government for several years. In 1868 a treaty was made with them under which they were removed to Fort Wingate, and the following year back to their old home around Fort Defiance and the cañon De Chelly, where a reservation of 5,200 square miles was assigned them. The latest count puts their number at 11,768—3,000 of whom are said to come directly under the civilizing influences of the agency. Schools are not well established yet, but few of their children attending, and then very irregularly. Although they produce largely, yet they are dependent upon the Government for two-thirds of their subsistence. They dress well, chiefly in materials of their own make, and covering the whole body.

Granada Mucho. A captain of a band.
Tiene-su-se. Third war-chief.
Mariana. Second war-chief.

III. DAKOTAS.

A large family of North American Indians, embracing the Assinaboins or Stone Sioux, the Dakotas proper, or, as they are called by the Algonkins, Nadowesioux, from which is derived the word Sioux; Omahas, Otoes, Osages, Poncas, Iowas, Kansas, Missourias, Minatarees, and Crows. Until quite recently they occupied the larger portion of the country bounded on the east by the great lakes, on the north by the British Possessions, on the west by the Rocky Mountains, and on the south by the Platte River. According to their traditions they came eastward from the Pacific, and encountered the Algonkins about the headwaters of the Mississippi, where the mass of them were held in check. One of the tribes of this great family, called by the Chippewas Winnebagook (men from the fetid or salt water), pushed through their enemies and secured a foothold on the shores of Lake Michigan. The Quapaws, called by their Algonkin foes the Alkansas or Arkansas, settled on the Ohio, but were ultimately driven down the river by the Illinois to the region now bearing their name. A few of the tribes retain very nearly their original hunting-grounds; the principal migrations of those who have moved having been southwestwardly, from the headwaters of the Mississippi to the Missouri.

In 1875 the Indians of this family residing within the limits of the United States numbered nearly 68,000, with about 1,000[Pg 29] more within the British Possessions. If the estimates of early explorers are to be relied upon, they must have lost heavily in population within the last one hundred years—intestine wars, the aggressions of the whites, and the vices of civilization reducing many once powerful tribes to demoralized remnants that are fast fading out of our knowledge by absorption into the ranks of more powerful neighbors. The majority of the tribes of this family are settled on reservations under the direct care and support of the Government, and are fairly on the road to a civilized future. The exceptions are some of the wild bands of the Sioux, the Minatarees or Gros Ventres, and the Crows. At the present writing most of the first-named are at war with the United States forces, while the two latter are friendly.

1. CROWS.

The Crows, or, as they call themselves, Absaroka, meaning something or anything that flies, when first known occupied the Lower Yellowstone and the valleys of the Big Horn and Tongue Rivers, but roamed over much of the surrounding country, carrying their incursions even to the plains of Snake River and to the valley of the Green. Were originally one with the Minatarees or Gros Ventres, but separated from them, and were afterward driven from their territory by the Ogalallas and Cheyennes, settling finally about the head of the Yellowstone, dispossessing in their turn the Blackfeet and Flatheads. Are divided into three bands, with a dialect peculiar to each, viz: the Kikatsa or Crows proper, the Ahnahaways, and the Allakaweah, numbering in all, as estimated in 1820, 3,250 souls. Obtaining horses at an early day, they became great marauders. Irving writes of them in "Astoria:" "They are in fact notorious marauders and horse-stealers, crossing and recrossing the mountains (the Big Horn), robbing on one side and conveying their spoils to the other." Hence, we are told, is derived their name, given them on account of their unsettled and predatory habits, winging their flight, like the crows, from one side of the mountains to the other, and making free booty of everything that lies in their way. In 1851, joined in a treaty with the United States giving a right of way for roads to be built through their country. In 1868 a treaty was made, and an attempt made to place all the Crows on one reservation, but without success until 1875. They have been much exposed to incursions from some parties of Sioux at their new agency on the Rosebud as well as at their[Pg 30] former one on the Yellowstone. "The Indians, full of war and revenge, have no thought to bestow upon farming or other peaceful employment, especially as the best farming lands of the reservation are most exposed to these hostile incursions. Six families, however, have been induced to tend small farms, and have succeeded well. A mile and a half of ditch, sufficient to irrigate several hundred acres, has been dug, and it is hoped that another season will see at least a beginning made toward the civilization of these 4,000 wild but always loyal Crows."

Kam-ne-but-se. Blackfoot.
Eche-has-ka. Long Horse.
Te-shu-nzt. White Calf.

Mo-mukh-pi-tche.
Ella-causs-se. Thin Belly.
Pish-ki-ha-di-ri-ky-ish. The One that Leads the Old Dog.

859. Group of Crow delegation to Washington in 1872, including Agent Pease and the interpreters.

2. DAKOTAS, OR SIOUX.

The word Dakota means united, confederated, or many in one, and designates the tribe from which the family takes its name. They seldom or never willingly acknowledge the title Sioux, first given them by the French, and now by all whites. There are many theories as to the origin of this latter name, the most acceptable of which is that it is a corruption of the word Nadouessioux—a general Chippewa designation for enemies—which was gradually applied by missionaries and traders, through an imperfect understanding of the language, to the tribes thus designated. Governor Ramsey, of Minnesota, thought that the word "originated upon the Upper Missouri, among the early French traders, hunters, and trappers, they deriving it, in all probability, from the name of a sub-band of the Ti-t́-wan (Teton), Dakotas, called Sioune, who hunted over the plains of that river, and with whom, consequently, they came most frequently in contact.

"In Lewis and Clark's travels in 1803, they are called the Teton Saone, and their villages are located on the Missouri, near Cannonball River.

"At least we find the term Sioux first used in the early maps to designate a large tribe, with various subdivisions, upon the Upper Missouri only."

Dakota traditions go back but a comparatively short time, and are vague and obscure in regard to their origin and early residence, which place it, however, in the Northwest, above the great lakes. In their progress eastward they early pos[Pg 32]sessed themselves of the country about the headwaters of the Mississippi and the Red River of the North, where they remained as late as 1868, when they were in part dispossessed by the Chippewas, who were eventually the cause of their removal to the Missouri.

Up to 1860, the Dakotas were divided into two principal divisions, those east of the Missouri, who were known as the Minnesota or Mississippi Dakotas, composed of four bands, viz: The Ḿdewakantons, or those of the Village of the Spirit Lake; the Wa-pe-kutes, or Leaf-Shooters; the Wahpetons, or Village in the Leaves; and the Sissetons, or those of the Village of the Marsh. Most of these have been long in contact with the whites, and, having disposed of the greater portion of their lands to the Government, have abandoned most of their old habits, and devote themselves to farming. Others of them, however, are restless and devoted to old prejudices, and cause much trouble to the settlers. The massacre of the whites in 1862 was inaugurated by the Ḿdewakantons, the Wahpetons and Sissetons afterwards joining them.

Along the Missouri, but living mostly on its eastern side, were the Shauktonwans (Yanktons), or the People of Village at the End, inhabiting originally the Sioux, Desmoines, and Jacques Rivers, and living now principally about the mouth of the Vermillion.

The Yanktonais, a diminutive of the preceding name, and meaning the lesser or the little people of the End Village. Lewis and Clark described them as the Yanktons of the Plains, or Big Devils, who were on the heads of the Sioux, Jacques, and Red Rivers. Their present range is on the Missouri, above the Yanktons. From one branch of this band the Assiniboines are said to have sprung.

The I-san-teis, or Santees, another sub-band of the Yanktons, living originally in Minnesota and Iowa, but since lately on the Missouri, near the Yanktons.

West of the Missouri, occupying the greater portion of Dakota, Wyoming, and portions of Montana and Nebraska, the general name of Tetons, or Tetonwans ("Village of the Prairie") has been given to the seven principal bands of the Dakotas inhabiting that region. Lewis and Clark placed them on their map in only two principal divisions, viz: as the "Tetans of the[Pg 33] Burnt Woods" (Brulés), and the "Tetans Saone," from which some suppose the word Sioux has been derived for the whole Dakota nation. The seven subdivisions as now recognized are the—

1. Siha-sa-pas or Blackfeet, on the Missouri in the neighborhood of the Cannonball River.

2. The Si-chan-koo or Burnt Thighs, (Brulés,) ranging on the Niobrara and White Rivers, from the Platte to the Cheyenne.

3. Oncpapas, or "those who camp by themselves," who roam over the country between the Cheyenne and Yellowstone Rivers.

5. Itá-zip-cho, or Sans Arcs, "without bows," affiliating with the Oncpapas and Blackfeet, and ranging over much the same country.

6. Ogalallas, occupy the country between Fort Laramie and the Platte, although they are now confined to a reservation in the northwestern corner of Nebraska. Have the reputation of being the most friendly disposed toward the whites of all the Titonwans. Red Cloud, so well known as an Indian diplomat, is chief of this band.

7. O-he-nom-pas, or Two Kettles. Live principally about Fort Pierre; against whom it is said very few complaints have ever been made, they having always observed faithfully the stipulations of their treaties with the United States.

In the Report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs for 1875, there are twenty-one sub-bands of Dakotas enumerated, numbering, in the aggregate, 53,044. Of these, there are fourteen represented by portraits of their leading men, viz:

"The Sioux are included under twelve agencies, nine in Dakota, two in Montana, and one in Nebraska, at all of which, except at Fort Belknap, a beginning in Indian farming has been made in spite of all discouragements by reason of unsuitable location and the demoralizing influence of 'the hostiles.'"

The Ogalallas at Red Cloud agency, who have almost entirely abandoned the chase on account of scarcity of game, depend almost entirely upon the Government for their support. Their small beginnings in cultivating the soil came to naught through the grasshoppers. The Brulés at Spotted Tail agency have a thriving school with 75 pupils, and cultivated some lands. At the Upper Missouri agencies but little has been done beyond feeding the Indians who report to them for that purpose, their attempts at farming resulting in failures on account of the grasshopper pest. The Yanktons, Santees, Sissetons, Wahpetons, and other Sioux on the Lower Missouri and in Eastern Dakota have made more substantial progress in civilization, many of them having permanently discarded their Indian habits and dress, and live in houses, and are nearly self-supporting. The Santees in Nebraska especially have entirely renounced their old form of life; have churches and sabbath-schools, which are regularly attended. They have a monthly paper, printed in their native language, with an edition of 1,200 copies.

With the exception of the last two numbers the above represent a portion of a delegation of prominent Sioux chiefs and warriors who visited Washington in 1872. The portraits were made in Washington, and represent them in their best attire.

334. Ta-shuń-ka-ko-ki-pa. Old Man Afraid of his Horses and his Chiefs.Ogalalla.

3. IOWAS.

A tribe of Indians of Dakota stock, inhabiting originally the interior of the State of the same name. Marquette in 1673 placed them on his map as the Pa-houtet. Some of the neighboring Algonkins called them Iowas—a name originally applied to a river, and said to mean "the beautiful land"—and others Mascoutin or Prairie Nadouessi. In their own tongue their name is Pahucha, meaning "Dusty Nose." They were famous as great pedestrians, being able to walk twenty-five or[Pg 46] thirty leagues a day, and the names of many of their chiefs show that they prided themselves on their walking.

In 1700 they were on the Mankato, and constantly roaming with the Western Algonkins. Early in the present century they numbered about 1,500, and were involved in wars with the Osages, Omahas, and the Sioux, losing heavily. Later they became much decimated through the ravages of the small-pox and other diseases.

First treaty was made with them in 1815. In 1836 the tribe, numbering 992, were removed to the west bank of the Missouri, and from this time rapidly declined in numbers, many of them becoming vagrants in other tribes, and others killed themselves by intemperance. By 1846 had decreased to 700. In 1861 the tribe, now reduced to 305, ceded all their lands except 16,000 acres, which they subsequently, in 1869, shared with some of the Sacs and Foxes, their old friends.

Since the tribe has been placed under the charge of the Society of Friends they have improved somewhat, so that at the present time (1875), although reduced to 219 souls, they are all living in good houses on their fertile reservation in Southern Nebraska, and are raising much more than is needed for their own consumption. They have good schools, at which nearly one-fourth of the tribe attend, and nearly one-half of the whole number can read. They stand in the front rank of civilized Indian tribes.

4. KAW OR KANSAS.

The Kansas are an offshoot of the Osages, whom they resemble in many respects. In 1673 they were placed on Marquette's map as on the Missouri, above the Osages. After the[Pg 48] cession of Louisiana, a treaty was made with them by the United States. They were then on the river Kansas at the mouth of the Saline, having been forced back from the Missouri by the Sioux, and numbered about 1,500 in 130 earthen lodges. Some of their chiefs visited Washington as early as 1820. In 1825 ceded their lands on the Missouri, retaining a reservation on the Kansas, where they were constantly subjected to attacks from the Pawnees, and on their hunts from other tribes, so that they lost rapidly in numbers. In 1846 they again ceded their lands, and a new reservation of 80,000 acres on the Neosho in Kansas assigned them; but this also soon becoming overrun by settlers, and as they would not cultivate it themselves, it was sold, and the proceeds invested for their benefit and for providing a new home among the Osages. The tribe in 1850 numbered 1,300; in 1860, 800; and in 1875 had dwindled to 516. Under the guidance of Orthodox Friends they are now cultivating 460 acres, and have broken more than as much again. They raised among other things 12,000 bushels of corn; 70 of them are regular church attendants, and 54 of their children attend school.

5. MANDANS.

The Mandans, or Mi-ah́-ta-nees, "people on the bank," have resided on the Upper Missouri for a long time, occupying successively several different places along the river. In 1772 resided 1,500 miles above the mouth of the Missouri, in nine villages located on both sides of the river. Lewis and Clarke found them in 1804 100 miles farther up in only two villages, one on each side of the river; near them were three other villages belonging to the Minnitarees and Ahnahaways.

In the year 1833 these Indians were in their most prosperous state, industrious, well armed, good hunters and good warriors, in the midst of herds of buffalo mostly within sight of the village, with large corn-fields, and a trading-post from which they could at all times obtain supplies, and consequently at that[Pg 49] time they might have been considered a happy people. In their personal appearance, prior to the ravages of the small-pox, they were not surpassed by any nation in the Northwest. The men were tall and well made, with regular features and a mild expression of countenance not usually seen among Indians. The complexion, also, was a shade lighter than that of other tribes, often approaching very near to some European nations, as the Spaniards. Another peculiarity was that some of them had fair hair, and some gray or blue eyes, which are very rarely met with among other tribes. A majority of the women, particularly the young, were quite handsome, with fair complexions, and modest in their deportment. They were also noted for their virtue. This was regarded as an honorable and most valuable quality among the young women, and each year a ceremony was performed, in the presence of the whole village, at which time all the females who had preserved their virginity came forward, struck a post, and challenged the world to say aught derogatory of their character.

In these palmy days of their prosperity much time and attention was given to dress, upon which they lavished much of their wealth. They were also very fond of dances, games, races, and other manly and athletic exercises. They are also a very devotional people, having many rites and ceremonies for propitiating the Great Spirit, practising upon themselves a self-torture but little less severe than that of Hindoo devotees.

In the spring of 1838 that dreaded scourge of the Indians, small-pox, made its appearance among the Mandans, brought among them by the employés of the fur company. All the tribes along the river suffered more or less, but none approached so near extinction as the Mandans. When the disease had abated, and when the remnant of this once powerful nation had recovered sufficiently to remove the decaying bodies from their cabins, the total number of grown men was twenty-three, of women forty, and of young persons sixty or seventy. These were all that were left of the eighteen hundred souls that composed the nation prior to the advent of that terrific disease.

The survivors took refuge with the Arickarees, who occupied one of their deserted villages, but retained their former tribal laws and customs, preserving their nationality intact, refusing any alliances with surrounding tribes. The two tribes have lived together since then upon terms of excellent friendship.[Pg 50] They now number 420, living in dome-shaped earthen houses, like the Pawnees, which are, however, being gradually replaced by log houses.

The following representatives of the tribe were part of a joint delegation of Arickarees and Mandans to Washington in 1874:

6. MISSOURIAS.

The Missourias are a tribe of Dakota descent, living on the Missouri River, their name being one given them by the Illinois, and means the people living by the muddy water. They style themselves Nudarcha. Were first heard of in 1673, as the first tribe up the river which bears their name. Became allies of the French at an early day, and assisted them in some of their operations against other tribes. Were hostile to the Spanish and also opposed to the ascendency of English influence. In 1805, when Lewis and Clarke passed through their country, they numbered only 300 in all, living in villages south of the Platte, and at war with most of the neighboring tribes. They were affiliated with the Otoes, having deserted their own villages near the mouth of the Grand some time previously in consequence of their almost entire destruction by small-pox. The[Pg 51] two have ever since been classed as one tribe. In 1862 the combined tribes numbered 708, and in 1876 only 454. Since their consolidation with the Otoes their history has been the same as of that tribe.

7. OMAHAS.

The Omahas were one of the tribes noticed by Marquette in 1673, and by Carver in 1766, who found them located on the Saint Peter's River. They were divided into two bands, the Istasunda, or Grey Eyes, and the Hongashans, and cultivated corn, melons, beans, &c. In 1802, from a tribe numbering about 3,500, they were reduced to less than a tenth of that number by small-pox, when they burned their village and became wanderers, pursued by their relentless enemy, the Sioux. Lewis and Clarke found them on the L'Eau qui Court, numbering about 600. Since 1815 many treaties have been made with them, always accompanied by a cession of lands on their part in return for annuities and farming implements. In 1843 they returned to their village, between the Elkhorn and the Missouri, and made a peace with some of the Sioux, but their great chief, Logan Fontanelle, was killed by them not long after. Since then they have devoted themselves mainly to agriculture, and, under the fostering care of the Friends, are very much improved in their condition. In 1875 they numbered 1,005, depending entirely upon their crops for their subsistence, of which they have considerably more than enough for their own use. They have three good schools, which are largely and regularly attended. The older Indians are also abandoning their old habits and assisting in building for themselves upon forty-acre allotments of their lands.

8. OSAGES.

The Osages were placed on the Missouri in 1673 by Marquette, who called them the Wasashe; were allies of the Illinois, and near the last of the past century had been driven down to the Arkansas. Coming in contact with the French, they became their firm allies, and joined them in many of their operations against Spanish and English and other Indians; in 1804, made peace with the Sacs and Foxes, with whom they had been at war, and settled on the Great Osage River. Their numbers were estimated then at 6,300. The usual succession of treaties ceding lands, and wars with neighboring Indians followed, reducing them very much in numbers, until the breaking out of the civil war, when 1,000 of them went South and joined the Confederacy. Treaties of 1865, 1866, and 1870 provided for the conveying of their lands in trust to the United States, and for their removal to the Indian Territory, where they have been placed under the care of the Society of Friends, and are now making rapid progress toward a self-supporting condition.[Pg 55] They now number 3,001, of whom 323 are civilized, self-supporting mixed-bloods.

887. Group representing the governor and some of the headmen or councillors of the nation, as follows:

9. OTOES.

The Otoes, calling themselves Watoohtahtah, were known to the French as early as 1673, under the name of Otontanta; were originally part of the Missourias, and, with the Iowas, claim to have migrated to the Missouri with the Winnebagoes. They have long resided on the south side of the Platte River, in mud lodges, confederated with the Missourias, who formed one village with them. The two tribes now number 457 souls. Under the care of the Friends, many are laying aside their Indian dress and habits, and learning to labor. In common with many other tribes, their annuities are payable only in return for labor performed, which exercises a most beneficial effect.

Insta-muntha. Iron Eagle.
Ko-inga. Little Thunder.
Op-po-hom-mon-ne.
E'en-brick-to.

10. PONCAS.

The Poncas were originally part of the Omaha tribe, to whom they are related. Lived originally on the Red River of the North, but were driven southwestwardly across the Missouri by the Sioux, and fortified themselves on the Ponca River. United for a time with the Omahas for protection, but have generally lived apart. Were so exposed to the forays of the savage Sioux that they were almost exterminated at one time, but after the treaties of 1817 and 1825 rallied and began to increase. Were estimated then at 750, which has remained their average number ever since. In 1858 sold their lands and went on a reservation near the Yanktons, but being too near their old foes, and not being able to raise any crops, were in 1865 removed down to the mouth of the Niobrara, where they now have three villages. Are still exposed to raids from the Sioux, retarding very much their progress toward a self-supporting condition. Efforts are being made to have them join their relatives, the Omahas.

Ash-nom-e-kah-ga-he. Lone Chief.
Ta-tonka-nuzhe. Standing Buffalo.
Wa-ga-sa-pi. Iron Whip.
Waste-co-mani. Fast Walker.

11. WINNEBAGOES.

The Winnebagoes are a branch of the great Dakota family, calling themselves O-tchun-gu-rah, and by the Sioux, Hotanke, or the Big-voiced People; by the Chippeways, Winnebagonk[Pg 60]—whence their common English name—a word meaning men from the fetid waters. The French knew them as La Puans (the Stinkers), supposed to have been given them in consequence of the great quantity of decaying and putrid fish in their camps when first visited by white men. With some others they formed the van of the eastward migration of the Dakotas, penetrating apparently some distance, but were forced back to Green Bay. This was some time previous to 1670, as the map of the French Jesuit missionaries, dated 1671, styles Green Bay the "Bayo des Puans," and the map accompanying Marquette's journal, dated 1681, notes a village of the "Puans" as near the north end of Winnebago Lake, on the west side.[A]

They were then numerous and powerful, holding in check the neighboring Algonkin tribes, but soon after an alliance of tribes attacked and very nearly exterminated them. Became firm friends of the French until the Revolution, when they joined the English; made peace with the colonists afterward, but sided with the English again in 1812.

In 1820 they numbered about 4,500, and were living in five villages on Winnebago Lake and fourteen on Rock River. By a treaty in 1832 they ceded all their lands south of the Wisconsin and Fox Rivers, for a reservation on the Mississippi, above the Upper Iowa, but here they became unsettled, wasteful, and scattered. In 1846 they surrendered this reservation for another above the Saint Peter's. This proved unfit, and they became badly demoralized, losing many of their number by disease, but were kept on it by force. In 1853 they were removed to Crow River, and in 1856 to Blue Earth, Minnesota, where they were just getting a start in civilized pursuits when the Sioux war broke out, and the people of Minnesota demanded their removal. Thus again they were put on the march, and this time landed at Crow Creek, on the Missouri, near Fort Randall, a place so utterly unfit, that the troops could not retain them on it. Out of 2,000 when taken there, only 1,200 reached the Omaha reserve, to which place they had fled for protection. They were then assigned a new reservation on the Omaha lands, and placed under the care of the Friends, and since then have prospered. At the time of their removal, in 1863, from Minnesota, many of the tribe who had taken up farms remained, receiving their share of the tribal funds. There were also last [Pg 61]year 860 in Wisconsin, of whom 204 have lately joined those in Nebraska, swelling their numbers to 1,667. Nearly all of these now dress in civilized attire, and many of them have taken farms, their lands being divided into 40-acre allotments for the purpose, upon which they are building neat and comfortable cottages. There is an industrial and three day schools on the reserve, which are attended by one-sixth of their whole number. Their chiefs are now elected annually by the tribe, who in turn appoints a force of twelve policemen from the Indians to preserve order.

IV. PAWNEES.

1. ARICKAREES.

The Arickarees, Ricarees, or Rees, as variously written, call themselves Sa-nish, or Tanish, meaning "the people," a common form of expression among Indians to indicate their superiority. They were originally the same people as the Pawnees of the Platte River, their language being nearly the same. That they migrated upwards along the Missouri from their friends below is established by the remains of their dirt-villages, which are yet seen along that river, though at this time mostly overgrown with grass. At what time they separated from the parent stock is not correctly known, though some of their locations appear to have been of very ancient date, at least previous to the commencement of the fur-trade on the Upper Missouri. At the time when the old French and Spanish traders began their[Pg 62] dealings with the Indians of the Upper Missouri, the Arickaree village was situated a little above the mouth of Grand River, since which time they have made several removals, and are now located at Fort Clark, in a former village of the Mandans.

The cabins or huts of the Arickarees and other stationary tribes are built by planting four posts in the ground in the form of a square, the posts being forked at the top to receive transverse beams. Against the beams other timbers are inclined the lower extremities of which describe a circle, or nearly so, the interstices being filled with small twigs, the whole thickly overlaid with willows, rushes, and grass, and plastered over with mud laid on very thick. A hole is left in the top for smoke to pass out, and another at the side for a door. The door opens a few steps distant from the main building on the surface of the ground, from which, by a gradual descent through a covered passage, the interior of the hut is reached. The door is of wood, and the aperture large enough to admit a favorite horse to the family circle, which is often done. These buildings are located within fifteen or twenty feet of each other without any regard to regularity.

They cultivate considerable land, each family separating its little farm from their neighbors' by rush fences. Corn is their principal dependence, of which they raise considerable quantities. The work is done entirely by the women, the primitive hoe being their only implement. They generally have quite a surplus, which they trade to the Dakotas and to the fur companies.

The Arickarees are quite expert in manufacturing a very serviceable kind of pottery, neatly shaped, and well adapted for cooking purposes. They are of clay, hand wrought, but not glazed.

At the present time they number 900, and are associated with 600 Gros Ventres and 420 Mandans at the Fort Berthold agency on the Upper Missouri, where 13,000 square miles has been set apart for them as their reservation. They have 500 acres under cultivation, and are receiving considerable assistance from the Government in the way of improved implements. Many houses are being built, and the more progressive Indians are abandoning the old mud-lodges for them.[Pg 63]

2. KEECHIES.

The Keechies, of whom there are now only a small remnant of about 90 in the Indian Territory, affiliated with the Wichitas, Wacos, and Tawacanies; were originally from Texas, and are supposed to be the Quitzies of the Spanish authorities of 1780. Even at that time they were a small tribe, numbering about 100 warriors. After the admission of Texas, were placed on a State reservation, where they remained undisturbed until 1859, when their presence became so distasteful to the settlers that it became necessary to remove them. Land was leased from the Choctaws and Chickasaws, and the Keechies settled on it, building their villages of grass houses along the Canadian River. The breaking out of the civil war set them back, just as they were beginning to prosper, compelling another remove for safety. In 1867 they were restored to their lands again, and since then have progressed rapidly in civilized pursuits. Like the Wichitas and Wacos, they are of the same stock as the Pawnees.

3. PAWNEES.

There is but little definite knowledge of the early history of the Pawnees, although they are among the longest known to the whites west of the Mississippi. Marquette notes them in his map, 1673, as divided into various bands. They are supposed[Pg 64] to be the Panimaha of La Salle's voyage in 1688. At the time of Lewis and Clarke's visit, in 1803, their principal village was on the south side of the Platte. Pike, in 1806, estimated the population of three of their villages at 6,233, with nearly 2,000 warriors, engaged in fierce combats with neighboring tribes. In 1820, three of the four bands into which they have been for a long time divided resided on the banks of the Platte and its tributaries, with a reservation on Loup Fork, on the ninety-eighth meridian. Were then estimated at about 10,000 souls, living in earth-covered lodges, and much devoted to the cultivation of the soil, but engaging regularly every season in a grand buffalo-hunt. The Delawares, in 1823, burnt the Great Pawnee village on the Republican, and these Pawnees, becoming much reduced in numbers by small-pox soon after, sold all their lands south of the Platte, and removed to the reservation on Lou Fork. The means were provided, and many exertions made to place them on the high road to prosperity; but their inveterate foe, the Sioux, harassed them continually; drove them repeatedly off their reservation, and despoiled their villages. This warfare and disease soon reduced them to half their former number. In 1861, they raised a company of scouts for service against the Sioux, and a much larger force under the volunteer organization, incurring in consequence an increased hostility from their enemies, who harassed them so continuously, that in 1874 the chiefs in general council determined upon removing to a new reservation in the Indian Territory, lying between the forks of the Arkansas and Cimarron, east of the ninety-seventh meridian. Their removal was almost entirely effected during the winter of 1874-'75.

The Pawnees now number in all 2,026, and yet retain the subdivision into bands, as follows: The Skeedee (Pawnee Mahas, or Loups), Kit-ka-hoct, or Republican Pawnees, Petahoweret, and the Chowee or Grand Pawnees. There are also living on the Washita, a small band of affiliated Wacos and Wichitas, sometimes called Pawnee Picts, who are undoubtedly an offshoot of the Grand Pawnees. They are under the care of the Friends; have well-organized day and industrial schools, and are well supplied with implements and means to carry forward a systematic cultivation of the soil.[Pg 65]

La-roo-chuk-a-la-shar. Sun Chief. See No. 534. Chowee.
Aru-saw-la-kit-towy. A Fine Horse.Skeedee.
Ski-ar-ra-ra-shar. Lone Chief. Chowee.
Se-ted-e-row-weet. One Aimed At.Skeedee.
Cot-ta-ra-tet-goots. Struck with a Tomahawk.Skeedee.
[Pg 66]

Baptiste Bayhylle, or La-shara-se-re-ter-rek. One whom the Great Spirit smiles upon.

Coo-towy-goots-oo-ter-a-oos. Blue Hawk.Petahowerat.
Tuc-ca-rix-te-ta-ru-pe-row. Coming around with the Herd.Petahowerat.

Loo-kit-towy-his-sa. On a Fine Horse.Skeedee.
Are-wauks. A Male Calf.Chowee.

610. Paw-hoo-cut-taw-wah. Knee-mark on the Ground on Stooping to Drink.Skeedee.

525-7. Groups of Indian children (attending the boarding-school on the reservation).

570-2. Groups of children in their every-day attire, which consists principally of the covering with which nature first clothed them.

547-9; 561-6; 587-90; 612. Miscellaneous portraits of Pawnees without information as to name or history.

4. WACOS.

5. WICHITAS.

V. SHOSHONES.

1. BANNACKS.

The Bannacks, Bonnacks, or Pannaques, a small, scattered tribe of Shoshone stock, roaming over the desert plains of Idaho and portions of the surrounding Territories, were first found about the Blue Mountains. In 1833 Bonneville met them on the Snake River, near the mouth of the Portneuf, "numbering about 120 lodges. They are brave and cunning warriors, and deadly foes of the Blackfeet, whom they easily overcome in battle when their forces are equal. They are not vengeful and enterprising in warfare, however, seldom sending parties to attack the Blackfeet towns, but contenting themselves with defending their own territories and houses." They frequent the headwaters of the Snake and Yellowstone countries to hunt and fish.

They have generally enjoyed a reputation for friendliness, although, in 1866, all but the Eastern Bannacks under Tahgee engaged in hostilities against the whites.

At the present time there are 600 Bannacks associated with 900 Shoshonees at the Fort Hall reservation on Snake River, where the attempt is being made to civilize them. There are 200 more at the Lemhi reservation, where there are also 340 Sheep-eaters, a band of the Bannacks living a retired life in the mountains dividing Idaho from Montana, and 500 Shoshonees.

46. Group of eight of the leading chiefs and braves; photographed at the Snake River agency in 1872, among whom are Paquits, or Bannock Jim, a prominent chief; Totse-cabe-natsy, The White-faced Boy, and Major Jim.

2. COMANCHES.

A roving, warlike, and predatory tribe of Shoshone descent, roaming over much of the great prairie country from the Platte to Mexico. Their traditions and early history are vague, but they claim to have come from the west. They call themselves Naüni (live people), but the Spanish called them Comanches or Camanches (Les Serpents), the name adopted by the Americans. Procuring horses from the Spaniards at an early day they became expert riders, which, united with their daring and aggressiveness, made them noted and feared throughout the Southwest. Engaged in long and bloody wars with the Spaniards, but were subdued by them in 1783. Were estimated about that time at 5,000 warriors. In 1816 lost heavily by small-pox. Up to 1847 were variously estimated at from 9,000 to 12,000 in all. Were at one time on a reservation in Texas, but were driven out of the State, and since then have been unrelenting enemies of the people of that State. The General Government has set apart a new reservation for them in the western part of the Indian Territory and are gradually drawing them all on to it, though not without much trouble. They now number 1,570 in all, and are divided into eight bands. Have made a commencement in farming, and have been induced to send a few of their children to an industrial school.

W. Blackmore, esq., in an article on the North American Indians, thus describes the Comanche:

"These fierce, untamed savages roam over an immense region, eating the raw flesh of the buffalo, drinking its warm blood, and plundering Mexicans, Indians, and whites with judicial impartiality. Arabs and Tartars of the desert, they remove their[Pg 72] villages (pitching their lodges in regular streets and squares) hundreds of miles at the shortest notice. The men are short and stout, with bright copper faces and long hair, which they ornament with glass beads and silver gewgaws."

"In their movements they are heavy and ungraceful, and on their feet one of the most unattractive and slovenly races I have ever seen; but the moment they mount their horses they seem at once metamorphosed, and surprise the spectator with the ease and grace of their movements. A Comanche on his feet is out of his element, and comparatively almost as awkward as a monkey on the ground without a limb or branch to cling to; but the moment he lays his hand upon his horse his face even becomes handsome, and he gracefully flies away, a different being."

3. KIOWAS.

The Kiowas, or prairie men, are one of the tribes that compose the Shoshone family. They are a wild and roving people, occupying the country about the headwaters of the Arkansas, but also formerly ranging over all of the country between the Platte and the Rio Grande. They had the reputation of being the most rapacious, cruel, and treacherous of all the Indians on the plains, and had a great deal of influence over the Comanches and other neighboring Indians. Our first knowledge of them was through Lewis and Clarke, who found them on the Paducah. They were at war with many of the northern tribes, but carried on a large trade in horses with some other tribes. Little intercourse was had with them until 1853, when they made a treaty and agreed to go on a reservation, but soon broke it and went raiding into Texas. The citizens of that State drove them out, but in revenge for the stoppage of their annuities, they retaliated upon the Texans, and until recently the warfare was kept up between them. In 1869, were placed on a reservation of over three and a half millions of acres with some Comanches and Apaches, but were restive and unsettled. In 1871, under their great chief Satanta, raided Texas again, but it resulted in the capture of himself and Big Tree, and their imprisonment soon after. Were afterwards pardoned by the governor of Texas, in whose custody they were, through interposition from Washington, and restored to their tribe; but this did not seem to lessen their hostility, and new disturbances arose, chiefly in consequence of raiding parties of whites from Texas, that led finally to the re-arrest of Satanta and his imprisonment in Texas.

4. SHOSHONES.

The Shoshones, or Snakes, are a tribe inhabiting the country about the headwaters of the Green and Snake Rivers, and a part of a great family of the same name, including the Comanches, Utahs, and Kiowas. They occupy nearly all of the great Salt Lake Basin, to the eastern base of the Sierra Nevada, and extend also easterly to Texas. The Shoshonees proper are divided into many bands under various names, the most important being the Buffalo-Eaters, of Wind River; the Mountain Sheep-Eaters, of Salmon River, and the Western Shoshonees, near Boise, separated from the rest of the tribe by the kindred Bannacks, numbering in the aggregate, with some lesser tribes on the Humboldt, between five and six thousand souls. Our first knowledge of them was through Lewis and Clarke, who found them west of the Rocky Mountains on the waters of the Columbia, but are supposed to have at one time inhabited the plain-country east of the mountains. James Irwin, United States Indian agent, in his report to the Commissioner, says: "They emigrated north about 1781, and proceeded to the upper waters of Green River under a leader or chief called Shoshone, or Snake. At this point they divided, one party going over on the Oregon slope, who are now called Western Shoshones, and have an agency in common with the Bannacks at Fort Hall. The other party constitute the eastern band of Shoshones, and have roamed around the Wind River Mountains from the time mentioned until 1868, when a treaty was made at Fort Bridger, that provided a reservation for them embracing the Wind River Valley. Recently they entered into a contract with the Government by which they ceded a portion of their reservation, leaving them a district perhaps 50 miles in length, and 30 in breadth, embracing a beautiful valley on the east side of the Wind River Mountains. They now number about 1,800 souls, and must have diminished greatly since the time of Lewis and[Pg 76] Clarke. Their life was a continued warfare; at first with the Crows and Blackfeet, and since then with the Cheyennes, Arapahoes, and Sioux, and all this time contending almost naked with the elements and struggling for subsistence."

667-676. Groups of in-door and out-door subjects, copied from small card views made in Salt Lake City, and which formed a part of the first Blackmore collection.

5. UTAHS.

The Utahs, Yutas, or Utes, as the name is variously written, are a large tribe belonging to the great Shoshone family, and who occupy the mountainous portion of Colorado, with portions of Utah, New Mexico, and Nevada. Those living in the mountains where game abounds have a fine physical development, are brave and hardy, and comparatively well to do; while those who inhabit the sterile plains of the Salt Lake Basin are miserably poor, and spiritless. We derive our first knowledge of the Utahs from the early Spanish explorers, who came in contact with them on the upper waters of the Rio Grande del Norte, and who gave them the reputation of being a brave and warlike tribe. Their country bordered that of the Navajos on the south (the Rio San Juan now dividing them), who formerly ranged as far north as the waters of the Grand, but were crowded back by the Utahs. A continuous warfare was kept up between the tribes, in which the Navajos were worsted. The Utahs were employed against them by the Government at the time of their expulsion from their country in 1863. The tribe is divided into many bands, which are continually changing, but as now recognized are as follows: Capotes, Weeminuches, Tabeguaches, Muaches, Grand River, Yampas, Uintahs, Peahs, Goships, and Mouaches. The tribe now numbers in the aggregate 5,260. The Pi-Utes, Pi-Edes, Timpanagos, San-pitches, and others in Utah are kindred tribes.

The Utahs have generally been friendly to the whites, although there was some fighting in 1859 and 1860 about Pike's Peak, many emigrants plundered at various times, and stray miners cut off by disaffected bands. The Capotes, Weeminuches, and others in the southern portion of the Territory have been more troublesome than those of the north.

Treaties were made in 1863 and 1868, giving them 18,320 square miles of reservation in the western part of the Territory.[Pg 78] The southern portion of it, known as the San Juan region, was found to be rich in precious metals, and as it was already attracting a large influx of miners, additional treaties were made in 1872 for the cession of that part of their reservation. In 1874 the tribe consented to the sale of about 6,000 square miles for $25,000 a year forever. Much dissatisfaction ensued from the failure of the Government to promptly carry out the provisions of the treaty, and from the fact that much of their most valuable agricultural lands were unwittingly included in the purchase.

"Though holding a hereditary friendship for the white people and acknowledging the supremacy of the Government, and for the most part included under agencies and receiving Government rations to a greater or less extent, no tribe in the country is more averse to manual labor, or has yielded less to civilizing influences, partly because of the abundance of game and partly because of their remoteness from settlements."

790-6, 965-74. Miscellaneous groups, all copies; a portion of the original Blackmore collection.

VI. SAHAPTINS.

The Sahaptin family inhabit the country south of the Salish, between the Cascade and Bitter Root Mountains, reaching southward, in general terms, to the forty-fifth parallel, but very irregularly bounded by the Shoshone tribes of the California group. Of its nations, the Nez Percés, or Sahaptins proper, dwell on the Clearwater and its branches, and on the Snake about the forks. The Palouse occupy the region north of the Snake, about the mouth of the Palouse; the south banks of the Columbia and Snake, near their confluence, and the banks of the Lower Walla Walla, are occupied by the Walla Wallas. The Yakimas and Klikelats inhabit the region north of the Dalles, between the Cascade Range and the Columbia. The natives of Oregon, east of the Cascade Range, who have not usually been included in the Sahaptin family, are divided somewhat arbitrarily into the Wascoes, extending from the mountains eastward to John Day River, and the Cayuses from this river across the Blue Mountains to the Grande Ronde.

1. NEZ PERCÉS.

The Nez Percés, or the Sahaptin proper, inhabit Idaho and portions of Oregon and Washington. They style themselves Numepo, but Lewis and Clarke called them the Chopunnish. The origin of their present name is buried in obscurity. Early in the present century they were estimated to number 8,000; and in 1836, when a mission was established among them, about 4,000. In the Oregon Indian war most of the tribe remained friendly and did effective service for the whites on a number of occasions. In 1854 a treaty was made ceding part of their lands,[Pg 84] but only a portion of the tribe recognizing it, led to a separation, one party becoming wandering hunters, while the other remained on the reservations.

"Of the 2,800 Nez Percés now living, nearly half located on the Kamiah and Lapwai reservations in northern Idaho, and a few others settled on lands outside the reserve, are prosperous farmers and stock-growers. The rest are 'non-treaties,' who, with other non-treaty Indians in that region, make every exertion to induce the reservation Indians to lease their farms and join them in their annual hunting and root-gathering expeditions."

Early in the summer of the present year troubles arose in regard to the occupancy of the Wallowa Valley by white settlers, it having been withdrawn in 1875 from the reservation assigned them by treaty in 1873, from a failure on their part to permanently occupy it. An Indian, belonging to a band of malcontents or non-treaties under the Chief Joseph, was killed by some settlers, when they insisted upon the removal of all the whites and the restitution of the valley to them. Upon the refusal of the Government to this demand, and further attempts to compel all the non-treaty Indians to come into the reservation at Lapwai, an outbreak occurred under the leadership of Joseph, which resulted in a number of pitched battles, with great loss of life, but were compelled to retreat, the forces under General Howard pursuing them eastwardly across the headwaters of the Snake River and through the Yellowstone National Park, where the pursuit was taken up by the forces under General Terry, resulting finally in the capture of Joseph and the remainder of his force by General Miles.

2. WARM SPRINGS.

The Warm Springs Indians, so named from their location about the thermal springs in Northern Oregon, are related to the Walla Wallas, and number 187, on a reservation of some 725 square miles, on which are also some 300 Wascoes and Teninoes. The combined tribes cultivate about 800 acres of the land. They are very well off in live stock and derive some of their income by lumbering. All wear citizen's dress, many have good comfortable houses, and support two schools, with an attendance of about 50 scholars. They assisted in the operations against the Modocs in 1872, raising a company of scouts for that purpose, who rendered good service.

3. WASCOS.

The Wascos, like the Warm Springs Indians, are related to the Walla Wallas, and through them to the Sahaptin family. The name signifies "basin," and the tribe derives its name, traditionally, from the fact that formerly one of their chiefs, his wife having died, spent much of his time in making cavities or basins in the soft rock for his children to fill with water and pebbles, and thereby amuse themselves. They came originally from around the Dalles. Are associated with the Warm Springs and Teninoes on a reservation in Oregon just south of the Columbia. Now number 263, profess the Christian religion, and are more advanced in civilization than any tribe in the State. All the tribes of this reservation are self-supporting, deriving about half their subsistence by agriculture and the rest by fishing and hunting.

VII. KLAMATHS.

1. KLAMATHS.

A comprehensive name applied to this as well as to several tribes on the Klamath River, differing in language and type. Live mainly by fishing and root-digging. By treaty in 1864 the[Pg 87] Klamaths and Modocs ceded all their lands, reserving a small tract on Klamath Lake, in Oregon, of 1,600 square miles, the Government to pay $8,000 in fifteen years, as well as other large sums for subsistence. Much of their reservation is mountainous, only a small portion being fit for cultivation. The Klamaths did not like the introduction of the Modocs on their reservation, and it eventually led to the Modoc war. They now number 676, and are quite prosperous. Have a large number of horses and cattle, but derive their chief support by lumbering.

2. MODOCS.

The Modocs were originally part of the Klamaths, but recently hostile to them. Their name is an Indian word meaning enemies. Their original territory was on the south side of Klamath Lake, including some 4,000 square miles. Were early known as a treacherous and cruel people, and up to 1850 had cut off more than 50 whites. Engagements followed between them and the whites in 1851—when Wright massacred 41 out of a total of 46—which were kept up until 1864, when they agreed to go on a reserve. The treaty to that effect was not ratified for seven years, and in the mean time were induced to go on the Klamath reserve. Were harassed and dissatisfied, and afterwards put on Yaniax reservation, but most of the tribe left under two rival chiefs, Schonchin and Captain Jack. The former settled peaceably near the settlements, while the latter went back to their old home and became troublesome. In 1872, were ordered back to the reserve, and upon their refusing to go troops were called on to enforce the order, the citizens joining in an attack on their entrenched camps, but were repulsed. The Modocs then retreated to the "lava-beds," a volcanic region so broken up into great caves and fissures as to serve as a natural fortification. After several engagements a commission was organized to enquire into the trouble, and while holding a conference with the leaders were attacked, and General Canby and Dr. Thomas were killed, (April 11, 1873.) After two months' further operations, the hostiles were reduced, their leaders hung, and the rest removed to the Indian Territory. About 100 who took no part in the trouble remained at the Klamath agency.

3. ROGUE RIVERS.

The Rogue Rivers, so called from the stream upon which they have lived for a long time, have also been known by the names Lototen or Tototutna. As a general rule the coast tribes are inferior in physique and character to the inland tribes, but an exception must be made in favor of the Rogue Rivers. "The men are tall, muscular, and well made, the women are short and some of them quite handsome, even in the Caucasian sense of the word." They are associated with some 15 or 20 tribes or bands at the Siletz agency, the whole numbering less than 1,500 souls.

VIII. PIMAS.

1. PAPAGOS.

The Papapootans, as they style themselves, belong to the Pima family, and have long resided in the country south of the Gila. Have always been at enmity with the Apaches until within the last year, but were friendly to the Spaniards, who, with a few exceptions, have maintained missions among them continuously up to the present time. At the close of the Mexican war were Mexican citizens, and partly civilized, but were not recognized as such by the United States, and were left without an agency or reservation until 1874, when they were settled on the Santa Cruz River, a tributary of the Gila, on a tract of 70,400 acres. They now number between 5,000 and 6,000 souls. Have well-cultivated farms, and live in houses of their own construction.

2. PIMAS.

The Pimas, calling themselves Ohotama, are a portion of a family of Indians of the same name, comprising, besides themselves, the Opates, Eudevis, and Joves, occupying much of Southern Arizona, Sonora, and Sinaloa. Missions were established among them at an early day by the Spaniards, but they revolted many times, killing several of the missionaries. They have long been divided into the Upper and Lower Pimas, the former living on the Gila, in mud-covered huts, and cultivating the soil extensively. Have been long associated with the Maricopas, the two tribes now living together as one on a reservation of 64,000 acres. The Pimas now number 4,100; are self-supporting, wear civilized dress, and are ready for the privileges of citizenship.

IX. IROQUOIS.

1. SENECAS.

One of the Five Iroquois Nations in Western New York, comprising, originally, the Sinnekaas, as the Dutch called them, (hence the word Senecas,) Onondagas, Mohawks, Cayugas, and Oneidas. When first known to the French, were living on the south side of Lake Ontario, and engaged in a fierce war with their Algonkin neighbors. By conquest several other tribes became incorporated with them. Missions were established among them by the French as early as 1657. In 1763 the Senecas alone, of the Six Nations, joined in Pontiac's league to extirpate the English. During the Revolution sided with the English, but made a peace in 1784, and during the second war remained loyal. Early in the century part of the tribe settled in Ohio, afterwards removing to the Indian Territory, where they now are to the number of 240. The New York Senecas still occupy the Alleghany, Cattaraugus, and Tonawanda reserve of 66,000 acres, where they all live in good houses and have large, well-cultivated farms, and are in every way a civilized and well-regulated class of people.

2. WYANDOTS.

The Wyandots, or Hurons, a western Iroquois tribe, lived originally on the shores of Lake Huron, where they raised tobacco to such an extent that they were called Petem, or Tobacco Indians. Were driven west to Wisconsin and to the shores of Lake Superior, and by the Sioux back again to the neighborhood of Detroit, where they remained up to the close of the wars between the United States and England. In 1832 ceded all their lands in Ohio to the Government, and 687 were removed to Kansas, where they have since resided, at the junction of the Kansas and Missouri Rivers. In 1855 many became citizens, and had their lands divided among them, the others being removed to the Indian Territory, where they now are, numbering 258 souls. Some of the Wyandots remained near Detroit, and by treaty with the English government were assigned a reservation on the Detroit River of 23,600 acres, where they yet remain, but have declined within the present century from 200 to 72. Their hereditary king remained with the Canadian band.[Pg 94]

X. MUSKOGEES.

1. CREEKS.

The Creeks are known in their own language as the Muskokee or Muskogee and occupied originally the greater part of Georgia, Alabama, and Florida. Their traditions say that they emigrated from the Northwest until they reached Florida, when they fell back to the country between the headwaters of the Alabama and Savannah rivers. As this was full of small rivers and creeks it was called by the early settlers the creek country, hence the name of the Creek Indians, who, when first known to the whites, were living there. Those remaining in Florida were called the Seminoles or Isti-semole (wild men). The nation became a confederacy of tribes speaking other languages, modifying somewhat the original Muskogee, but who, nevertheless, numbered seven-eighths of their whole number. Before a dominant power was established in the South they were courted by the Spanish, French, and English, and were about equally divided in their allegiance to these nations, but the final success of the English brought them entirely under their influence. "They took an active part in the war of the Revolution against the Americans, and continued their hostilities till the treaty concluded at Philadelphia in 1795. They then remained at peace eighteen years; but at the beginning of the last war with Great Britain a considerable portion of the nation, excited, it is said, by Tecumseh, and probably receiving encouragement from other sources, took arms without the slightest provocation, and at first committed great ravages in the vicinity of their western frontier. They received a severe chastisement, and the decisive victories of General Jackson at that time, and some years[Pg 95] later over the Seminoles, who had renewed the war, have not only secured a permanent peace with the southern Indians, but, together with the progress of the settlements, have placed them all under the absolute control of the United States. The Creeks and Seminoles, after some struggles among themselves, have ceded the whole of their territory and accepted in exchange other lands beyond the Mississippi."—Gallatin.

Twenty-four thousand five hundred and ninety-four were removed west of the Mississippi, only 744 remaining on their old hunting-grounds. At the breaking out of the civil war the western Creeks numbered less that 15,000. The tribe divided and engaged in pitched battles against each other, the Unionists suffering badly, many fleeing to Kansas. They were brought together again after the war, and in 1872 numbered 13,000, on a reservation of over 3,000,000 acres in the Indian Territory.

By the report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs for 1876, they were numbered at 14,000, including 3,000 mixed-bloods, and all wearing citizens' dress and living in good houses. They have 36 school buildings, with an attendance of about 750 pupils; over $24,000 was expended upon their education. There are 20 churches on the reserve, with a membership among the Creeks of over 3,000. They rank among the first of civilized tribes.

2. SEMINOLES.

"The Isti-Semole (wild men) who inhabit the peninsula of Florida (1836) are pure Muskogees, who have gradually detached themselves from the confederacy, but were still considered members of it till the United States treated with them as with an independent nation. The name of Seminoles was given to them on account of their being principally hunters and attending but little to farming."

Were very hostile to the Americans up to the cession of Florida in 1819, but a treaty was finally made with them in 1823. Other treaties followed looking to their removal westward, in attempting to carry out which a war ensued, lasting from 1835 until 1842. Nearly 2,000 had then been removed, leaving about[Pg 97] 300 in Florida, and 145 of these, under Billy Bowlegs, joined the western band in the Indian Territory in 1858. Had much trouble in getting settled upon a reservation, locating finally upon a tract of 200,000 acres bought of the Creeks, where they now number 2,553—a prosperous and civilized tribe.

3. CHICKASAWS.

When first known the Chickasaws were located north of Mississippi on the Cumberland and Tennessee Rivers. Were mixed up in the early French and English wars, remaining loyal to the English up to 1783. Operated with the Americans against the Creeks in 1793. Commenced to migrate west of the Mississippi early in the present century. Sold their lands to good advantage and amassed considerable wealth, and were in every way a prosperous, progressive nation. They purchased a large tract of land from the Choctaws, a tribe speaking the same language, and affiliated with them in all tribal affairs. In 1855, on payment of $150,000 to the Choctaws, they effected a political separation. Like the Choctaws, they first went south with the confederates during the civil war, but returned to the northern army afterwards. They lost very much property, besides a large number of slaves.

Their numbers have not undergone any material change, the latest census placing their numbers at 5,800. Nearly 2,000 of these are mixed bloods. Two weekly papers are supported between the Choctaws and themselves. They are also well supplied with churches, schools, and other appliances of an industrious, civilized, and prosperous people. They have intermarried to a great extent with the whites, some of the following portraits being of subjects having a large proportion of white blood in their veins.

4. CHOCTAWS.

The Choctaws, or Chahtas, at the time of De Soto's visit in 1540, were living south of the Chickasaws, and west of the Creeks. Unlike the surrounding tribes, they were peaceably disposed, and a nation of farmers, and much farther advanced in civilization than any of their neighbors. Coming in contact with the French, Spanish, English, and Americans, they have never been at war with any of them. Commenced moving west of the Mississippi in 1801, and by 1830 had exchanged all their lands for other in the Indian Territory. By 1861 had advanced far in civilization, numbering with the Chickasaws 25,000, with 5,000 slaves. In the civil war they joined first the South and then the North, losing a great deal in property, and a reduction to 17,000 of their population. They now number 16,000, of whom two-thirds are of mixed blood. Are governed by a written constitution; elect their chief every four years; have a council, consisting of 40 members, and a judiciary, and trial by jury.

XI. INDEPENDENT AND UNCLASSIFIED TRIBES.

1. ARAPAHOS.

"Very little is known of the early history of the Arapahos, but are supposed by some to be the Querechos of the early Spanish explorers. They called themselves Atsinas, of whom, however, they are but a branch. The early English knew them as the Fall Indians, and the French as the Gros Ventres of the south. They were then roaming over the plain country about the heads of the Platte and Arkansas. Gallatin speaks of them as a detached tribe of the Rapid Indians, which has wandered as far south as the Platte and Arkansas and formed a temporary union with the Kaskasias and some other erratic tribes. At the present time (1862) the Arapahos are divided into two portions or bands. The first portion call themselves Na-ka-si-nin, 'People of the Sage,' and number one hundred and eighty lodges. They wander about the sources of the South Platte and the region of Pike's Peak; also northward to the Red Buttes on the North Platte. Sometimes they extend their journeyings in search of buffalo along the foot of the Big Horn Mountains in the Crow country. The second band call themselves Na-wuth-i-ni-hau, the meaning of which is obscure. It implies a mixture of different kinds of people of different bands. They number 200 lodges, and range along the Arkansas River and its tributaries."—Hayden.

In 1820 Morse estimated them at 10,000, and speaks of them as a warlike people and often making predatory and murderous excursions on their eastern and northern neighbors.

The Arapahos affiliate with the Cheyennes, with whom they have been on friendly terms for many years. Lately, however, an antipathy seems to be growing up between the two tribes in the Indian Territory, and the Commissioner of Indian Affairs advises a separation. They are divided into two principal divisions, known respectively as the Northern and Southern Arapahos. Those of the north, numbering 1,562, affiliate with the Cheyennes and Ogalallas at the Red Cloud agency. They have been ordered to join their southern brethren, and at the present time the necessary preparations are under way. The Southern Apaches, who number 1,664, with the Southern Cheyennes and a small band of Apaches, are temporarily occupying a large reservation in the western portion of the Territory. The new reservation assigned them lies along the northern bor[Pg 100]der of the Territory west of the Creek and Cherokee countries, and was purchased from them. It comprises nearly 5,000,000 acres.

But little has been done by them looking toward civilization, beyond signifying their willingness to have farms apportioned to them and in sending their children to school.

2. CADDOS.

The Caddos, or Cadodaquious, at present a small remnant of a tribe that once ranged over the Red River country, where they were first met with in 1687 by Jontel and other survivors of the La Salle expedition. They are now consolidated with Wacos, Wichitas, Keechies, Tawacanies, Ionies, and Delawares, and number 552, occupying the Wichita reservation of about 1,200 square miles in extent between the branches of the—

They have now well-managed farms, and are noted for industry and general intelligence.

3. CHEROKEES.

When first discovered, the Cherokees were occupying the mountainous country about the headwaters of the Tennessee River and portions of Georgia and South Carolina, up to 1830. They form a family by themselves, supposed, however, to be somewhat remotely connected with the Great Iroquois family. They call themselves in their language Tsaraghee. According to their traditions, they came to this country before the Creeks, dispossessing a people of whom there is now no record. Before and during the Revolution they were friendly to and aided the English. A treaty of peace was made with them, by which they acknowledged the sovereignty of the United States November 28, 1785, and were confirmed in the possession of their lands, occupying a considerable portion of Tennessee and parts of North Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi. Commenced migrating to the trans-Mississippi country as early as 1790, consequent upon the encroachments of civilization, and in 1818 3,000 more emigrated. As frequent cessions of their lands had reduced their territory to less than 8,000 square miles in extent, and also in consequence of the hostility of the Georgians, they were all removed in 1838 to their present reservation in the Indian Territory, excepting about 1,000, who remained in North Carolina. At the opening of the civil war they had progressed to a high degree of prosperity, but suffered great injury from both parties ravaging their country, and also in the emancipation of their slaves. Nearly all the Cherokees at first joined the Confederacy, but after the fight at Pea Ridge, seeing the result doubtful, 9,000, under Colonel Downing, with a majority of the nation, abandoned the southern cause and joined the Union forces; 6,500 adhered to the Confederacy to the end. At the time of their removal west the Cherokees numbered about 27,000. In 1867 they were reduced to 13,566, but since then have increased, so that they now number about 18,000. There are about 1,700 yet in North Carolina, in a prosperous condition, owning about 70,000 acres of land.

The reservation in the Indian Territory comprises about 5,000,000 acres, only one-third of it capable of cultivation, and of which they are now working some 90,000 acres. Their crops for 1875 aggregated 630,000 bushels corn, 70,000 bushels wheat, 35,000 bushels oats, 50,000 tons hay, 500,000 feet of lumber, &c. They have 63 schools, attended by nearly 2,000 children,[Pg 103] that are supported by a fund of $1,580,000, held by the United States. Under their present constitution they are governed by a national committee and council elected for two years. The executive, or chief, is elected for four years.

The following portraits show the effects of the civilizing influences they have been living under, and also the extensive admixture of white blood among them by intermarriage:

4. MOQUIS.

A tribe of semi-civilized Indians living in seven villages on the plateau between the San Juan and Little Colorado Rivers. They were among the Pueblos visited by the expedition under Coronado in 1540, who named the region inhabited by them the Province of Tusayan. The Franciscans established missions among them, but in the general uprising of 1680 all were expelled or killed. Numerous attempts were afterward made to reduce them, but without success, and they have remained independent to this day. They have the reputation of being an extremely kind-hearted and hospitable people; are exclusively agricultural, raising maize, squashes, pumpkins, and peaches. They also have many sheep and goats. Have suffered much by depredations from the Apaches and Navajos. Their villages are perched upon the summits of mesas, from 400 to 600 feet in height. Their houses are built of stone laid in adobe-mortar, in terrace form, seldom exceeding three stories in height, and reached only by ladders. The women knit, spin, and weave, making fine blankets, women's robes, and other like articles, which they trade to the neighboring tribes.

When they first came under the jurisdiction of the United States, were estimated to number 8,000. Were almost destroyed by small-pox in 1855 and 1857, and lost many more by the famine in 1867. On both occasions their villages were aban[Pg 104]doned and the people scattered among the mountains, or took refuge among the kindred Zuñis, and other pueblos. Are now estimated at 1,500 souls. They use no intoxicating drink; are industrious and virtuous. The men adopt the usual Mexican dress, while the women wear a woven tunic and a small blanket tacked over the shoulders. Before marriage the hair of the women is worn in two large rosettes upon each side of the head, and after marriage, is worn loose down the back or rolled up back of the head.

Being entirely self-supporting, they have had but few agents and very little assistance from the General Government. Their remote and nearly inaccessible location has also removed them beyond the reach of most missionary enterprises. Within the last two or three years some efforts have been made to establish schools among them, supported mainly by Presbyterian enterprise.

5. PUEBLOS.

A general name applied by the Spaniards to several tribes of semi-civilized Indians in what is now New Mexico. The term pueblo, in Spanish, literally means the people and their towns. They were first visited by Cabeza de Vaca in 1537, who conveyed the first authentic account of their villages to Mexico, which resulted, in 1540, in the expedition of Coronado. As nearly as can be ascertained at the present time, he visited and subdued the Pueblos in the neighborhood of Zuñi, along the Rio Grande, and the Moqui of the province of Tusayan; but only occupied the country two years. Were finally subdued in 1586, and the Spanish retained uninterrupted control, with the exception of the period of the insurrection of 1680, until the cession of the territory to the United States in 1847. At the time of Coronado's visit they were as advanced as now, raising grain, vegetables, and cotton, and manufacturing fine blankets. Their houses are sometimes built of stone, but generally of adobe; are several stories in height—three to five usually—each one receding from the one below, leaving a terrace or walk. The general plan is a hollow square, although in some cases they are built in a solid mass, like a pyramid, six or eight stories in height. In each pueblo there are large rooms, sometimes under ground, for religious observances or councils, called in Spanish, estufas. The towns are sometimes built upon the summits of high terraces or mesas, extremely difficult of approach.[Pg 106]

The Pueblos constitute several tribes, with different languages; some are now extinct; but those existing are the Zuñis; Toltos in Taos, with whom are classed the people of Picuris, the Sandia, and Isleta; the Tiguas in San Juan, Santa Clara, Nambé, San Ildefonso, Pojuaque, and Tesuque; (the Moquis of pueblo of Té-wa are said to speak this language); the Queres in Cochité, San Domingo, San Filipe, Santa Aña, Zia, Laguna, and Acoma; the Jemez, in the pueblo of the same name. In the 19 pueblos named there are now estimated to be 8,400 people, the most populous being Zuñi, with some 1,500 souls, and the least, Pojuaque, numbering only some 30 or 40 persons. Were recognized as citizens under Mexican rule, but since the admission of New Mexico the matter has been left in doubt. In 1858, Government confirmed to them the old Spanish grants of the land the Pueblos cultivate, averaging about twelve square leagues to each pueblo. They retain their own form of government, each village electing a governor, and a council consisting of three old men. Have been under Catholic influence since the Spanish conquest; but in the division of the tribes among the religious denominations, the Pueblos were first assigned to the Baptists, and afterward to the Presbyterians, who are now actively engaged in establishing schools among them.

6. TAWACANIES.

A small tribe in the Indian Territory associated with the Caddos, Kiowas, and others on the Wichita agency. They are well advanced toward civilization.

7. TEMICULSA.

A small band of Indians living in the southern portion of California, who are extensively intermarried with the Mexicans. They are a thrifty, prosperous people, fully able to take good care of themselves, and are not under the care of any agent.

NUMERICAL INDEX.

ADDENDUM.

1093. Group of four chiefs and two interpreters of the Ponca delegation.

1094. Group of all the members of the Ponca delegation in Washington, November 14, 1877.

Inconsistent spelling of the same word in the original, with the exception of hyphens, has been retained except as listed below.

Page iii: "measurememts" changed to "measurements" (photographs, measurements or other details).

Page 11: "cultivate" changed to "cultivates" (while his family cultivates corn and potatoes).

Page 22: "Miembro" changed to "Miembre" in listing of names for consistent spelling.

Page 51: Ah-he-cho-ka-thocka" changed to "Ah-ho-che-ka-thocka" (At his (Ah-ho-che-ka-thocka's) death) for consistent spelling.

Page 57: "Hic-a-poo" changed to "Hick-a-poo" (and after the death of Hick-a-poo).

Page 101: The last sentence in the paragraph about the Caddos does not have an ending in the original book. The reservation was located between the Washita and Canadian Rivers.

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Apaches proper	463
Aribaipais	389
Coyoteros	1,784
Chiricahuas	475
Essa-queta	180
Gila	800
Jicarilla	950
Mescalero	1,100
Miembre	800
[Pg 23]Mohave	588
Mogollon	400
Pinal	435
Tonto	661
Yuma	376
Miembre, Mogollon, and Coyoteros classed together	490
	———
Total	9,891

Blackfeet, numbering at the present time about	1,750
Brulés, numbering at the present time about	8,420
Cut Heads, numbering at the present time about	200
Mdewakanton, numbering at the present time about	——
Ogalallas, numbering at the present time about	9,136
Oncpapas	2,100
Sans Arc	1,778
Santee	800
Sisseton	903
Santee and Sisseton at Fort Peck	1,000
Two Kettles	2,261
Wahpeton	1,300
Yanktons	2,500
Yanktonais, Upper and Lower	8,129