-
A.
-
Accumulation, a circumstance of no account
in Political Economy, page 169,
note.
-
Air, Atmospheric, has utility without
having value, 137;
-
but if pumped into a diving-bell, the service has value, 138.
-
Algeria, usual rate of interest in, said
to be 10 per cent., 302.
-
Aphorisms, the Two, "Each for all, all for
each"-"Each for himself, each by himself," 339-346.
-
Opposed to each other if we regard the motive, not so if we
look to results, 339.
-
No incompatibility in this last view between individualism and
association, 340.
-
Men associate in obedience to self-interest, ib.
-
Difficulties attending a state of isolation lead naturally to
association, 341.
-
As regards labour and exchanges, the principle "Each for
himself" must be predominant, 342.
-
By following the rule each for himself, individual efforts act
in the direction of each for all, 343.
-
Icarian expedition proceeded on the principle of all for each,
344,
note.
-
Principles of Socialism and Communism refuted, 343,
344.
-
All desire monopolies and privileges, even the working
classes, at their own expense, 345,
346.
-
B.
-
Barter, primitive form of exchange, direct
or roundabout, 108.
-
When barter is effected by means of an intermediate commodity,
it is called sale and purchase, 109.
-
Barter of two factors, 110.
-
Value resolves itself into a barter of services, 137.
-
Bastiat, Frédéric, his birth, parentage,
and education, p. 9.
-
His early friendship with M. Calmètes, ib.
-
Begins the study of Political Economy, 10.
-
Gives up commerce as a profession, ib.
-
His friendship with M. Coudroy, ib.
-
They study Philosophy and Political Economy together, ib.
-
Takes part in the Revolution of 1830, 11.
-
Bastiat publishes his first brochure in 1834, ib.
-
Becomes Juge de Paix, and a Member of
the Council-General, ib.
-
Visits Spain, Portugal, and England, 12.
-
Writes Le Fisc et la Vigne, ib.
-
Publishes two other brochures in 1843 and 1844, ib.
-
Anecdote regarding unfounded Anglophobia, ib.
-
Sends his first contribution to the Journal
des Économistes, 13.
-
Publishes Cobden et la Ligue in 1845,
ib.
-
Letter to Mr Cobden quoted, ib.
-
Named a corresponding member of the Institute, 14.
-
Letter to M. Calmètes quoted, ib.
-
Visits Paris, and introduced to leading economists, 15.
-
Visits England in 1845, and makes the acquaintance of Cobden,
Bright, and the other Corn-Law Leaguers, ib.
-
Letter to M. Coudroy quoted, 15,
16.
-
Bastiat complains of the hatred to England then prevalent in
France, 16.
-
Settles in Paris, ib.
-
His appearance, as described by M. de Molinari and M. Reybaud,
17.
-
Letters to Cobden and Coudroy quoted, ib.
-
Conducts the Libre-Échange newspaper,
18.
-
His mode of life in Paris, ib.
-
Publishes the Sophismes Économiques,
great success of that work, and extract from it, 18,
19,
20,
21.
-
Delivers a course of lectures on Political Economy, 21.
-
Is returned as a member of the Legislative Assembly, ib.
-
His daily occupations, 22.
-
His pamphlets against the Socialists, Propriété
et Loi; Propriété et Spoliation;
Justice et Fraternité; Capital et Rente; Gratuité
du Credit; Protectionisme et
Communisme, etc., published in 1848-49, ib.
-
Publishes Baccalauréat et Socialisme,
and Ce qu'on voit et ce qu'on ne voit pas,
in 1850, 23.
-
Extract from the latter, 24,
25.
-
Projects Harmonies Économiques, and
letter to Mr Cobden on that subject quoted, 25.
-
Letter to M. Coudroy on the same subjects, ib.
-
His health begins to give way, 26,
27.
-
His account of the reception of the Harmonies,
27.
-
Notice of that work, 27,
28,
29.
-
List of chapters intended to complete the second volume of the
Harmonies, 30,
note.
-
Goes to Italy on account of his health, 30.
-
His letter to M. Coudroy from Rome, 31.
-
His last illness and death, 31,
32.
-
Bell, Sir Charles, his work on the Hand
quoted, 29,
note.
-
Blanqui, his opinions on landed property
quoted, 255.
-
Bonald, M. de, quoted, 152.
-
Brazil, usual rate of interest in, said to
be 20 per cent., 302.
-
Buchanan, D., his opinions on landed
property quoted, 252.
-
Buret, M., his false theory on the
relations of capitalist and labourer, 384.
-
Butler, Bishop, his Sermons on Human
Nature quoted, 478,
note.
-
Byron, Lord, quoted, 32.
-
C.
-
Cairnes, Professor, quoted, 18.
-
Caisses de Retraite, friendly accumulation
societies to provide for old age, 372,
note.
-
Such institutions satisfy the natural desire for stability and
fixity, ib.
-
To succeed must proceed from the working classes themselves,
without Government support or interference, 373.
-
Future of the working classes, 374.
-
Calmètes, M., the early friend of Bastiat,
9.
-
Candlemakers' Petition quoted, 19.
-
Capital et Rente, pamphlet by Bastiat
against the Socialists, 22.
-
Capital, in the beginning formed very
slowly, 197.
-
Consists of tools, materials, and provisions, 198.
-
The man who furnishes capital renders a service, and is paid
for that service, 199,
200.
-
The man who accords delay renders a service, and hence the
legitimacy of interest, 203,
204.
-
Principle which governs the returns for capital, 206-211.
-
Progress of mankind coincides with rapid accumulation of
capital, 210.
-
Capital has in itself a power of progression, 211.
-
Increase of capital is followed by increase of general
prosperity, 212.
-
By increase of capital, the capitalist's absolute
share of product increased, his relative
share diminished, while labourer's share is increased both
absolutely and relatively, ib.
-
Illustrations of this, 213-216.
-
Progress of civilisation tends to lower rate of interest, 302.
-
Rates in Brazil, Algeria, Spain, Italy, Germany, France,
England, and Holland, ib.
-
Relations of capitalist and labourer, 383.
-
Erroneous notions on this subject most dangerous, 384.
-
Falsest theories abroad, ib.
-
Due to M. de Sismondi and M. Buret, ib.
-
Labourer's share of product has a tendency to increase as
capital increases, 385.
-
When exchange takes place between capital, or anterior labour,
and present labour, it is not on the footing of their duration
or intensity, but of their value, 387.
-
Anterior labour has a general tendency to become depreciated,
388,
389.
-
Presence of capital always beneficial to labourer, 390.
-
Groundless outcry against tyranny of capital, 391,
392.
-
Carey, Mr, his theory of rent referred to,
274,
note by Translator.
-
Ce qu'on voit et ce qu'on ne voit pas, or
Political Economy in one Lesson, pamphlet by Bastiat, quoted, 24.
-
Châteaubriand, represents civilisation and
corruption of morals as marching abreast, 511,
512.
-
His Mémoires d'Outre Tombe quoted, 512.
-
Civil law terms explained, 172,
and note.
-
Cobden, Mr, letter from, on the subject of
Bastiat's merits as an economist and writer, 4.
-
Triumph of free trade due to him rather than to Sir Robert
Peel, 374.
-
His efforts for the suppression of war, 375.
-
Communists, their erroneous views of
landed property controverted, 155.
-
Competition, no organization or form of
association can be substituted for, 288.
-
Implies freedom from all constraint, 289.
-
Levels all factitious inequalities, 290.
-
Misunderstood by the Socialists, ib.
-
Value diminishes through the co-operation of natural forces,
not of its own accord, but by the pressure exerted by
competition, 291,
292.
-
In the absence of competition, society would be constituted on
the principle of universal monopoly, ib.
-
Competition enables one country to participate in the natural
advantages of another, 293.
-
Examples of this, 294,
299.
-
Inventions and discoveries become, through competition, the
common and gratuitous patrimony of all, 299.
-
Mode in which this takes place, 300,
301.
-
Competition among capitalists reduces the price of
commodities, 301,
302.
-
Progress of civilisation tends to lower the rate of interest,
and this effected by competition, 302.
-
If wages are sometimes reduced by competition, the labourers,
as consumers, profit by it, 303-307.
-
Competition tends to render services proportional to efforts,
306.
-
Laws of modern society too often cramp competition, 309,
310.
-
Competition essential to progress, and allied with human
perfectibility, 313.
-
It approximates ranks, fortunes, and intelligence, 316.
-
Advantages from inventions, or from local situation, climate,
etc., slip rapidly from hands of producers, and go to enlarge
enjoyments of consumers, 333,
334.
-
Same thing holds of disadvantages, 334.
-
Condillac quoted, 114,
107.
-
Considérant, M., his work on Socialism
quoted, 62,
note.
-
His opinions on landed property, 257-260.
-
Consumer, every man may in turn be both
producer and consumer, 324,
325.
-
The wishes and desires of consumers are those which are in
harmony with the public interest, 325.
-
Consumers and producers should be left free to take care of
their own interests, 326.
-
The effect of inventions and discoveries on the interests of
consumers and producers represented by diagrams, 331,
332.
-
Advantages from inventions, or from local situation, climate,
etc., slip rapidly from the hands of producers, and go to
enlarge the enjoyments of consumers, 333,
334.
-
Same thing holds of disadvantages, 334.
-
All great economic effects must be regarded from the
consumer's point of view, ib.
-
Subordination of producer's interests to those of consumer
confirmed when viewed in connexion with morals, 335.
-
Consumer is alone responsible for morality or utility of
production, 338.
-
Producer looks only to value, ib.
-
Consumer represents society, ib.
-
Consumption, a term employed to designate
the enjoyment to which utility gives rise, 323.
-
General prosperity is measured by consumption, and not by
labour, 325.
-
Consumption the great end of Political Economy, 338.
-
Coudroy, Felix, studies Philosophy and
Political Economy along with Bastiat, 10.
-
Letter to, quoted, 15.
-
Another letter to, quoted, 26.
-
D.
-
Defoe, D., his Robinson Crusoe referred
to, 101.
-
Illustration drawn from, 197.
-
Demand determines all in connexion with
production, 335.
-
Diamond, has great value without
appreciable utility, 139.
-
Value of one found accidentally and exchanged arises, not from
the effort of the person who renders the service, but the
effort saved to the one who receives it, 141,
142.
-
This a new principle not to be found in the works of
economists, 141.
-
Disturbing Causes. Political Economy sets
out by assuming transactions to be free and voluntary, 446.
-
Liberty is harmony, 447.
-
Economists not optimists, 448,
449.
-
Errors of judgment one disturbing cause, 452,
453.
-
Division of Labour admits of being viewed
in a more general light than hitherto, 105.
-
Dunoyer, M., his work Sur
la Liberté du Travail referred to and commended, 92.
-
E.
-
Economists differ from the Socialists at
the starting-point, 35,
36.
-
Efforts. Wants, efforts, and
satisfactions, 63-74.
-
Effort saved to the person who receives a service imparts
value to the service rendered, 141,
142.
-
England, population of, doubles in 43
years, 404.
-
L'État, pamphlet by Bastiat defining the
proper province of Government, 23.
-
Euler, his calculation of the period in
which population doubles itself, 407.
-
Applying this calculation to the facts stated by Moses,
Hebrews who entered Egypt must have doubled in 14 years, ib.
-
Evil, Existence of. Science has been
retarded by being called on to deny the existence of evil, 504.
-
Socialists, while admitting individual suffering, deny social
suffering, ib.
-
Their contradictions exposed, 504-507.
-
Exchange, impossible to conceive society
as existing without, 97.
-
A phenomenon peculiar to man, 101.
-
Has two manifestations, union of forces, and separation of
occupations, 104.
-
Consists in exchange of services, ib.
-
Its influence on labour, 105.
-
Upon the co-operation of natural agents, 105.
-
Upon human powers and faculties, 107.
-
Upon capital, ib.
-
Progress of exchange, 108-111.
-
Primitive form of, barter, 108.
-
Barter direct and roundabout, 109.
-
Limits of exchange, 111.
-
An element in the problem of population which Malthus has
neglected, 113.
-
Moral force of exchange, 116.
-
In consequence of exchange, our powers exceed our wants, ib.;
-
and the gain of each is the gain of all, 117.
-
Illusions to which exchange gives rise, 128-130.
-
Exchange imparts the idea of value, 135.
-
F.
-
Fénélon quoted, 77.
-
Final Causes, faith in, not unattended
with danger to the mind of an inquirer, 397.
-
Fisc, le, et la Vigne, pamphlet written by
Bastiat in 1840, 12.
-
Florez Estrada, his opinions on landed
property quoted, 254.
-
Florian's Fables quoted, 135.
-
Force, Public, should be confined to
ensuring justice, liberty, and security, 121,
122.
-
France, youth of, address to, 33.
-
Usual rate of interest in, said to be 4 per cent., 302.
-
Population of, doubles in 138 years, 401.
-
Friendly Societies, have conferred immense
benefits on the working classes, 368.
-
Admirable means of providing against sickness and old age, ib.
-
Liberty and non-interference of Government essential to ensure
their success, 369.
-
This secures reciprocal surveillance, 369-373.
-
Marked success of these societies in England, 370-373.
-
This due to the non-interference of Government, 371.
-
G.
-
Garnier, M. Joseph, his opinions on landed
property quoted, 256.
-
Germany, usual rate of interest in said to
be 5 per cent., 302.
-
Population of, doubles in 76 years, 404.
-
Girardin, M. Saint-Marc, quoted as to the
influence of employments on the condition of nations, 455.
-
Gratuité du Credit, pamphlet by Bastiat
against Proudhon's doctrine, in 1850, 22.
-
H.
-
Habit, force of, as changing man's wants,
an essential element to be taken into account, 84.
-
Transforms desire into want, 85.
-
Harmonies Économiques projected, and
letters to Mr Cobden and M. Coudroy on that subject quoted, 25.
-
Bastiat's account of the reception of that work, 27.
-
Notice of the Harmonies, 27,
28,
29.
-
List of chapters intended to complete 2d vol. of, 30,
note.
-
Holland, usual rate of interest in, said
to be under 3 per cent., 302.
-
Population of, doubles in 100 years, 404.
-
I.
-
Icarie, voyage en, Socialist work referred
to, 205.
-
Institute, Bastiat named a member of, 14.
-
Interest of Capital, Proudhon's error
regarding, 158.
-
All the power of the Church unable to enforce prohibition of,
480.
-
Isolation, in the state of, our wants
exceed our powers, 98;
-
and the gain of one may be the loss of another, 117.
-
Italy, usual rate of interest in, said to
be 6 per cent., 302.
-
J.
-
Johnson, Dr, his opinions on free will and
necessity quoted, 473,
note.
-
Journal des Économistes, Bastiat's first
contribution to, 13.
-
Justice et Fraternité, pamphlet by Bastiat
against the Socialists, 22.
-
K.
-
Kepler referred to, 68.
-
L.
-
Labour, the assertion that all wealth
comes from labour combated, 88.
-
Utility communicated by nature, by labour, and oftener by a
combination of both, ib.
-
To produce utility, action of labour in an inverse ratio to
that of nature, ib.
-
As used by Economists, a vague term, and more extended meaning
given to it in this work, 92.
-
Distinction between productive and unproductive, has led to
error, ib.
-
Distinction between productive and unproductive labour
rejected, 156,
157.
-
Effort a better term than labour, 158.
-
Labour cannot serve as a measure of value, 171.
-
Unskilled labour the best for making a comparison, ib.
-
In exchanging present for anterior labour, the advantage is on
the side of present labour, 178.
-
The opposite phenomenon sometimes manifests itself, 179.
-
Laissez-faire, doctrine of, explained, 48,
448,
449.
-
Lamennais, M. de,
his opinions on the principle of population combated, 408,
409.
-
Landed Property. The idea of value gives
rise to that of property, 249.
-
Confusion caused by Economists mistaking utility for value, 250.
-
Property represented as monopoly, 250,
251.
-
Is not a monopoly, 251.
-
Opinions of English Economists on this subject-Adam Smith
quoted, 252;
-
Buchanan quoted, 252,
253;
-
Ricardo's opinion, ib.;
-
M'Culloch's views, 253;
-
Scrope and Senior quoted, ib.;
-
opinions of Mill and Malthus referred to, 254;
-
Scialoja and Florez Estrada quoted, ib.
-
French Economists-M. Say quoted, ib.;
-
Blanqui and J. Garnier quoted, 255,
256.
-
Opinions of Socialists and Communists-M. Considérant quoted,
257;
-
These opinions controverted, 260-273.
-
Recapitulation, 273.
-
Bastiat has adopted the theory of Mr Carey on this subject,
which should be taken with some modification, 274,
note by Translator.
-
Land which has not been subjected to human action, destitute
of value, 274.
-
Value resolves itself into the remuneration of anterior labour
or capital, ib.
-
M. Considérant's views reverted to, 278-280.
-
Productive powers of the soil have no independent value, 285.
-
Case of the South Australian Association referred to, ib.
-
Ameliorations which increase the value of land generally
diminish the price of its produce, 347.
-
Explanation of this, 348,
349.
-
Theory of the progressive dearness of means of subsistence
erroneous, 351,
note.
-
Lauderdale, Lord, his Inquiry
into the Nature and Origin of Public Wealth quoted, 187,
note.
-
Legislation, relations of Political
Economy with, 513,
note.
-
Liberty, solution of social problem to be
found in, 34.
-
Libre-Échange, newspaper, conducted by
Bastiat, 18.
-
M.
-
M'Culloch, his opinion on landed property
quoted, 253.
-
Machiavel quoted, 56.
-
Malthus on population, referred to, 113.
-
Vindicated from violent attacks made on him, 397.
-
Authors of those attacks writers of no reputation and grossly
ignorant, ib.
-
Malthus feared that, with so great a power of reproduction,
mankind would come to exceed what the earth could maintain but
for prudence and foresight, 398.
-
An expression which occurred in the first edition of his Essay
on Population, to the effect that population increases in a
geometrical, and food in an arithmetical progression, gave
rise to misrepresentation, ib.
-
Made a handle of by Godwin and Sismondi, and was suppressed in
all subsequent editions, 399.
-
Attacks continued notwithstanding, the fiercest proceeding
from men who confessed they had not read Malthus's work, ib.
-
The laws of population cannot be comprised in a brief aphorism
or formula, 400.
-
Were known before Malthus wrote, 402.
-
Objections to his theory illogical, 405.
-
Arguments against his geometrical progression not conclusive,
ib.
-
Wrong in adopting the limit of twenty-five years, although
that holds good in America, 406,
407.
-
Malthus attributes more force to repressive than preventive
check, 410.
-
His true formula is, not that population tends to keep on a
level with, but to go beyond, the means of subsistence, 416.
-
Maudit Argent! pamphlet by Bastiat
exposing popular errors arising from confounding capital with
money, and money with inconvertible paper, 23.
-
Measure of Value, the quadrature
of Political Economy, 170.
-
Absolute measure a chimera, ib.
-
Labour cannot serve as a measure, 171.
-
Mémoire sur la question Vinicole, pamphlet
published by Bastiat in 1843, 12.
-
Mémoire sur la répartition de l'impôt foncier,
pamphlet by Bastiat, written in 1844, 12.
-
Metals, Precious, not a perfect standard
of value, their own value fluctuating, 151,
152.
-
Métayage, system of, explained, 61,
note.
-
Molière, his Malade
Imaginaire quoted, 104.
-
Molinari, M. de, his description of
Bastiat's appearance quoted, 17.
-
Money, an intermediate commodity which
facilitates the exchange of services, but does not change the
principle of value, 142.
-
Montaigne quoted, 97.
-
Moral qualities must be taken into account
with reference to production of wealth, 93,
94.
-
Morality of Wealth, considerations on, 193,
194.
-
Morals, relations of Political Economy
with, 513,
note.
-
Moreau de Jonnès, his calculations of the
period of doubling the population in various countries, 403.
-
Moses, his account of the multiplication
of Hebrews who entered Egypt, 407.
-
N.
-
Newton, Sir Isaac, referred to, 62.
-
O.
-
Organization, natural and artificial, 47.
-
P.
-
Paix et Liberté, pamphlet by Bastiat
against excessive taxation and overgrown military and naval
armaments, 22.
-
Pamphlets by Bastiat, Réflexions
concernant les Douanes, and Le Fisc et la
Vigne, published 1840, 11,
12.
-
Mémoire sur la question Vinicole
appeared in 1843, and Mémoire sur la
répartition de l'impôt foncier in 1844, ib.
-
Pamphlets against the Socialists, Propriété
et Loi, Propriété et Spoliation,
Justice et Fraternité, Capital et Rente, Gratuité
du Credit, Protectionisme et
Communisme, etc., published in 1848-9, 22.
-
Maudit Argent! extract from, 23.
-
Baccalauréat et Socialisme, and Ce qu'on voit et ce qu'on ne voit pas,
published in 1850, ib.;
-
extracts from the latter, 24,
25.
-
Peel, Sir R., triumph of Free Trade due
not so much to him as to Mr Cobden, 374.
-
Perfectibility, means of realizing, to be
found in law of Responsibility, 509.
-
Liberty the essence of progress, ib.
-
Formidable obstacles to progress, 509,
510.
-
But no ground for despair, 510.
-
Châteaubriand represents civilisation and corruption of morals
as marching abreast, 511,
512.
-
Petty, Sir W., cited, 186.
-
Phalanstère, a Socialist work, referred
to, 64,
205,
note.
-
Physiocrates, French Economists of the
school of Quesnay, 153,
note.
-
Represented all labour not worked up in a material commodity
as sterile, ib.
-
Political Economy, limits of the science
marked out, 70,
71.
-
May be defined the theory of exchange, 73;
-
or the theory of value, ib.
-
Takes for granted the existence of evil and suffering, 76.
-
Many errors in, arise from regarding human wants as a fixed
quantity, 79.
-
Not one of the exact sciences, 82,
83.
-
First principles of, involved in difficulties by erroneous
definitions of value, 136.
-
A science of observation and exposition, 502.
-
Contrast between Political Economy and Socialism, ib.
-
Relations of Political Economy with Morals, Politics, and
Legislation, 513,
note.
-
Population, laws of, cannot be comprised
in a brief formula, 400.
-
Vindication of Malthus, and of the general doctrine of his
Essay on Population, 397,
400.
-
If, as wealth increases, the number among whom it is to be
divided increases more rapidly, absolute wealth may be
greater, but individual wealth will be less, 401.
-
Malthus has reduced the principle to the formula that
population tends to keep on a level with the means of
subsistence, 402.
-
This principle not new; every writer on such subjects since
Aristotle has proclaimed it, ib.
-
Enunciated by Sir James Steuart thirty years before the
appearance of the Essay on Population, ib.,
note.
-
Nature has taken greater care of species than of individuals,
in order to insure the perpetuity of races, 402.
-
Instances of this in the vegetable kingdom, ib.;
-
and in animals whose life is of a type more akin to
vegetables, 402,
403.
-
Advancing in scale of social life, means of reproduction
bestowed with greater parsimony, ib.
-
In the human species, reproductive faculty less powerful than
in any other, ib.
-
But, physically, man does not escape the law of a tendency to
multiplication beyond the limits of space and nourishment, ib.
-
Difference between the physiological power of multiplying and
actual multiplication, ib.
-
Malthus inquired in what period of time mankind would double,
if space and food were unlimited, 404.
-
But as this hypothesis is never realized, theoretical must be
shorter than actual period, ib.
-
Different rates of increase in different countries according
to estimate of M. Moreau de Jonnès, 403.
-
Such differences not the result of physiological causes, but
of external obstacles, 404.
-
New sources of local wealth lead invariably to increase of
population, ib.
-
Objections made to the theory of Malthus very illogical, ib.
-
Nor are the arguments against his geometrical progression more
conclusive, ib.
-
Fixed on twenty-five years as the minimum period in which
population may double itself, because this actually takes
place in America, 405.
-
Malthus merely asserts that it has a tendency
to increase in a geometrical progression, ib.
-
That this virtual power of multiplication will be restrained
is just what Malthus contends for, ib.
-
Restrained by preventive and repressive checks, 406.
-
He was wrong in adopting the limit of twenty-five years,
although it holds good in America, 406,
407.
-
This mixing up of the virtual and the real has exposed him to
be misunderstood and misrepresented, 406.
-
Calculation by Euler of period of doubling, 407.
-
Applying Euler's calculation to the facts stated by Moses,
Hebrews who entered Egypt must have doubled in 14 years, ib.
-
Absolute power of multiplication limited by obstacles, 408.
-
Vegetable life limited by want of space and territorial
fertility-animals destitute of foresight, by want of food, 409.
-
Opinions of M. de Lamennais on this subject combated, ib.
-
Law of limitation as regards man manifests itself by the
double action of foresight and destruction, 410.
-
The term moral restraint, used by Malthus, does not give us a
just idea of the domain of foresight, ib.
-
Other obstacles besides fear of poverty aid the action of the
law of limitation in its preventive shape, 410,
411.
-
Marriages on an average are probably later than they otherwise
would be by eight years in consequence of these preventive
obstacles, 411.
-
Supposed advice of an old clergyman regarding too early
marriages, 411,
412.
-
Man's perfectibility an important element in resolving the
problem of population, 413.
-
Malthus, by neglecting this, has attributed less force to the
preventive than to the repressive check, ib.
-
For the expression, "means of subsistence," Say has
substituted one more exact, namely, "means of existence," ib.
-
Man's constant effort to better his condition exercises
control over increase of numbers, 414.
-
Better circumstances induce greater foresight, ib.
-
In countries like China or Ireland, when rice and potatoes
fail, there is nothing to fall back on, and repressive check
comes into operation, 416.
-
The true formula of Malthus is, not that population tends to
keep on a level with, but to go beyond, the means of
subsistence, ib.
-
Foresight prevents this in the human race, ib.
-
Recapitulation, 416,
417.
-
Population tends to redundancy most among unskilled labourers,
420.
-
Marriages are less improvident among the higher classes, 421.
-
Fermage less efficacious in
interposing a preventive obstacle to increase of population
than Métayage, 421,
422.
-
These terms explained, 421.
note.
-
Almsgiving tends to destroy foresight, ib.
-
Improvement in labourers' cottages in England, 422.
-
Rate, of wages in one country influences the rate in others,
423.
-
Population is in itself a force, for increase of productive
power results from density of population, 424,
note.
-
Producer, every member of society may in
turn be both producer and consumer, 324,
325.
-
Producers and consumers should be left free to take care of
their own interests, 327.
-
The effect of inventions and discoveries on the interest of
producers and consumers illustrated by diagrams, 331,
332.
-
Advantages, from inventions, or from local situation, climate,
etc., slip rapidly from the hands of producers, and go to
enlarge enjoyments of consumers, 333,
334.
-
Same thing holds of disadvantages, 334.
-
Producer has nothing to do with the utility of what is
produced, only with its value, 336.
-
The utility concerns the demander, ib.
-
It is in the intention of the consumer that moral or immoral
enjoyment is to be discovered, 338.
-
Production is to modify and combine
substances, not to create, them, 100.
-
Production and consumption not the best terms to designate
services rendered and received, 323.
-
Production is employed to designate whatever confers utility,
ib.
-
Progress annihilates value by substituting
gratuitous for onerous utility, 73.
-
Prolétaire, definition of the term as used
by Bastiat, 35,
note.
-
Property and Community, two ideas
correlative to ideas of onerosity and gratuitousness, 223.
-
Gifts of nature, the domain of community-human efforts, domain
of property, ib.
-
Principle of property, 226-229.
-
Illustrations of this, 229-232.
-
As society advances, property tends to recede, and community
to advance, 232.
-
Illustrations of this, 233-236.
-
Vindication of property, 238-240.
-
Distinction between community and communism, 245-248.
-
Property. See Landed
Property.
-
Propriété et Loi, pamphlet by Bastiat
against the Socialists, 22.
-
Propriété et Spoliation, pamphlet by
Bastiat, 22.
-
Protection, a phase of communism, 323.
-
This demonstrated by Bastiat in pamphlet entitled Protectionisme et Communisme, 22.
-
Proudhon, his erroneous view of landed
property, 155,
233,
260.
-
Error as to interest of capital, 158.
-
His view of wealth and value confuted, 188-190.
-
Doctrine of mutuality of services, 224.
-
Providence, laws of, harmonious, 43.
-
Q.
-
Quesnay, French Economists of his school
known as the Physiocrates, 153,
note.
-
Represented all labour not worked up in a material commodity
as sterile, ib.
-
R.
-
Réflexions concernant les Douanes,
pamphlet written by Bastiat in 1840, 11.
-
Religion derived from religare,
to bind, 468.
-
False religions may be known from their obstructing progress,
480.
-
No form of religion ought to be repressed by law, 481,
482.
-
Human mind generally begins by discovery of final causes, 514.
-
Habit blinds us to final causes, ib.
-
When we discover efficient, we are too apt to deny final
causes, 515-517.
-
Rent. See Landed
Property.
-
Ameliorations which increase the value of land generally
diminish the price of its produce, 347.
-
Explanation of this, 348,
349.
-
Author intended to adopt the theory of Mr Carey in opposition
to that of Ricardo, 347,
note.
-
Theory of the progressive dearness of means of subsistence
erroneous, 351,
note.
-
Responsibility, belief in God the leading
idea of this work, 465.
-
Differs from the writings of Socialists, ib.
-
The author's proposed introduction continued by editor, 465,
466,
note.
-
Laws of Responsibility and Solidarity act together, 466;
-
and should be viewed in their ensemble,
but for the method required by science, ib.
-
Evil and suffering exist everywhere, in the individual and in
society, 467,
468.
-
The social body not subject to inevitable decline, 468.
-
De Custine's remarks on this subject quoted, ib.,
note.
-
Society, like the human body, has a vis
medicatrix, 469.
-
Men approximate to a common level which is constantly rising,
ib.
-
Liberty implies possible error, and error possible evil, ib.
-
Socialists' errors on this subject combated, 470,
471.
-
Political Economy is not concerned to explain origin of evil,
471.
-
Sufficient that evil and suffering exist, and have their
mission, 472.
-
Existence of free will proved by our consciousness of
possessing it, 472,
473.
-
Dr Johnson's opinion on this subject quoted, 473,
note.
-
Every action gives rise to consequences, of which some fall
back on the agent, and others on his family or on society,
hence responsibility and solidarity, 474.
-
Responsibility applies to the person who acts, ib.
-
We cannot even conceive of man as exempt from suffering, 474,
475.
-
Our notions of sensibility and existence are inseparable, 475.
-
Faith the necessary complement of our destinies, ib.
-
Without sensibility we should be constantly exposed to death,
ib.
-
If, of the consequences following on action, the majority are
bad and hurtful, such action tends to limit and restrain
itself, 476.
-
Ignorance gives rise to bad habits and bad laws, knowledge and
experience to the reverse, ib.
-
Mission of evil is to destroy its own cause and stimulate
progress, 477.
-
Responsibility has three sanctions,-natural, religious, and
legal, 478.
-
The first of these is fundamental, ib.
-
Is an act vicious because revelation declares it so, or does
revelation declare it so because its consequences are bad? ib.
-
Bishop Butler's Sermons on Human Nature quoted, 478,
note.
-
If we had a religion which forbade acts proved to be useful,
it could not be maintained, 479.
-
All the power of the Church insufficient to enforce
prohibition of interest, 480.
-
False religions known from their obstructing advancement and
progress, ib.
-
Legal sanction should only give force and efficacy to natural
sanction, ib.
-
Where natural repression sufficient, legal repression should
be avoided, 481.
-
Law acts by means of force, and should not be applied to
repress any particular form of religion, 481,
482.
-
Other instances of the hurtful interposition of law, 482-485.
-
Evils to which foundling hospitals have given rise, 485-487.
-
Sense of responsibility capable of improvement, 487.
-
Its development may be aided by female intervention, ib.
-
Revolution of February, remarks on its
consequences, 123-128.
-
Revue des Deux Mondes quoted, 16.
-
Reybaud, M. Louis, his notice of Bastiat
referred to, 16.
-
His description of Bastiat's appearance quoted, 17.
-
Ricardo, his theory referred to, 38.
-
Wrong in representing the principle of value as residing in
labour, 136.
-
Gave to the word wealth the sense of utility; Say, that of
value, 181.
-
His opinions on landed property quoted, 252,
253.
-
Robinson Crusoe, illustrations drawn from,
101,
197,
198.
-
Rousseau, J. J., quoted, 48.
-
His Contrat Social commented on, 56;
-
quoted, 57-60;
-
referred to, 77.
-
Recognises the elasticity of human wants, 81.
-
Admits existence of evil, 85,
note;
-
His doctrine controverted, 97.
-
To exalt the state of nature, makes happiness to consist in
privation, 102.
-
Represents solidarity as of legislative creation, 488,
489.
-
Russia, population of, doubles in 43
years, 404.
-
De Custine's work on Russia quoted, 468,
note.
-
S.
-
Saint-Chamans, M. de, referred to and
quoted, 184.
-
His doctrine confuted, 185,
186.
-
Sale and Purchase is barter by means of an
intermediate commodity, 109.
-
Both resolve themselves into an exchange of services, 110.
-
Satisfaction of Consumers, the sole end of
production, 94,
95,
96.
-
The term satisfaction preferred to the word consumption, as
more general, ib.
-
Saving is not to accumulate commodities,
but to interpose an interval between time of rendering and
receiving services, 393.
-
The demand for labour and the rise of wages depend on
augmentation of capital, ib.
-
Difficulties on the subject of saving removed by reference to
the principle of value, 391.
-
To interpose delay between services rendered and received is
itself to render a service; it has value, and hence the origin
of interest, 395.
-
To give credit is to render a service, which also has value,
396.
-
Saving not necessarily injurious to industry, ib.
-
It does not imply actual hoarding, ib.
-
Say, J. B., quoted, 90.
-
Referred to, 100.
-
Judicious observation on barter-troc à deux
facteurs, 110.
-
Wrong in representing value as residing in utility, 136.
-
Quoted, 142.
-
Erroneous view of landed property, 154.
-
Is wrong in representing value as founded on utility, 161-164.
-
Discards Smith's distinction between productive and
unproductive labour, 173.
-
Gave to the word Wealth the sense of Value; Ricardo that of
Utility, 181.
-
His definition of natural wealth quoted, 190.
-
His opinions on landed property quoted, 255.
-
Has substituted the more exact expression "means of existence"
for the expression "means of subsistence," used by Malthus in
his Essay on Population, 413.
-
Wrong in representing taxation as in all cases an evil, 426,
notes.
-
Scialoja, his opinions on landed property
quoted, 254.
-
Scrope, his erroneous view of landed
property, 253.
-
Senior, his erroneous view of rent, 154.
-
Founds value on rarity, remarks on this doctrine, 167.
-
His opinions on landed property quoted, 253.
-
On the relations of Political Economy with Morals, Politics,
and Legislation, 513,
note.
-
Services, human transactions, when free,
resolve themselves into exchange of, 43.
-
Value consists in comparative appreciation of, 73.
-
Service is effort in one man, while the want and satisfaction
are in another, 74.
-
Exchange of, forms the subject of Political Economy, 133.
-
Effort saved to the person who receives a service imparts
value to the service rendered, 140-142.
-
Service a better term than Labour, 158.
-
Every product which has value implies a service, but every
service does not imply a product; value, therefore, is in
service, 174.
-
When value passes from service to product, it undergoes, in
product, all the risks and chances to which the service itself
is subject, 176.
-
Service is rendered by the man who furnishes capital, 199,
200.
-
Private and Public service, 425.
-
Where want so general as to be a public want, may be provided
for by the community at large, 426.
-
This does not alter essential principles of exchange, ib.;
-
Process explained, ib.
-
Sophism that money paid to public functionaries comes back
like rain on the citizens exposed, 430.
-
Public services always extinguish private services of the same
kind, ib.
-
Public services leave no discretion to individuals, 432.
-
Example of this, ib., note.
-
Take away control over services both rendered and received, 433.
-
Extinguish sense of responsibility, 434.
-
Give rise to public discontent, 434,
435.
-
Exclude competition, 435,
436.
-
Question is, what services should remain in the domain of
private exertion, what in that of public? 436.
-
Government action is legitimate only where intervention of
force legitimate, 437;
-
and legitimate only in the case of defence of liberty and
property, ib.;
-
and to ensure the predominance of justice, 438,
439.
-
When the State goes beyond this, it destroys liberty and
property, which are placed under its safeguard, ib.
-
Province of Government confined to what involves public
security, taking care of common property, and levying
contributions for public service, 440.
-
Circumscribing the province of Government does not enfeeble,
but strengthen it, 441.
-
Example of the United States, 442.
-
Slavery and protection in America active causes of revolution,
ib.
-
Revolution of February, remarks on, 444.
-
Sismondi, M. de, referred to, 184.
-
His doctrine on wealth and value controverted, 187.
-
His false theory on the relations of capitalist and labourer,
384.
-
Smith, Adam, wrong in representing value
as residing only in material substances, 91.
-
His distinction between roductive and unproductive labour has
led to errors, ib.
-
His account of the influence of exchange on labour commended,
105.
-
Wrong in representing the principle of value as residing in
materiality and durability, 136.
-
Quoted and controverted on the subject of value, 156.
-
Opinions on landed property quoted, 252.
-
Social Motive Force described and
explained, 495-503.
-
Personal interest is the social motive force which leads us to
shun evil and seek after good, 495.
-
Attraction towards happiness and repulsion from pain, the
mainspring of the social mechanism, 496.
-
This impulsive force is under direction of our intelligence,
and intelligence may err, ib.
-
The laws of responsibility and solidarity lend assistance to
repress error and injustice, 497.
-
Attempts of the Socialists to substitute devotion and
self-sacrifice for personal interest, as the social motive
force, combated, 498,
499.
-
Socialist works and writers referred to, 500-503.
-
Social Problem, demands solution, 33,
34.
-
Solution to be found in liberty, not in constraint, 35.
-
The man who demonstrates that the good of each tends to the
good of all, as the good of all tends to the good of each,
will have resolved the social problem, 118.
-
Socialists differ from Economists in
regarding man's interests as antagonistic, 35.
-
Socialist works referred to, 64,
and note.
-
Society, mechanism of, 48.
-
Gives the humblest mechanic more in one day than he could
himself produce in many ages, ib.
-
Study of, the business of Political Economy, 51.
-
In social state our powers exceed our wants, 98.
-
Solidarity is collective responsibility,
488.
-
Not of legislative creation, as represented by Rousseau, 488,
489.
-
The philosophers of the last century did not believe in it, 489.
-
Instances in which individuals suffer from the errors or
faults of others-this is the law of solidarity, 489,
490.
-
Responsibility is not exclusively personal, but is shared and
divided, 490.
-
Society, in turn, suffers from the errors or faults of
individuals, and the law of solidarity comes to check such
actions, 491.
-
Solidarity, like responsibility, is a progressive force, and
resolves itself into repercussive or reflected responsibility,
ib.
-
To enable those who suffer from another's acts to react
against them, connexion between cause and effect should be
known, 492.
-
Not always known, from the circumstance that the first effect
may seem good, though all the subsequent consequences are bad,
ib.
-
Example of this in case of war, ib.
-
In the case of slavery, of religious errors, and of
prohibition, ib.
-
Human law should coincide with the natural law, and organize
reaction, 493.
-
Example of this in case of violence, which provokes vengeance,
law steps in to repress it with regularity and certainty, 493,
494.
-
Economic view of the law of solidarity not indicated by the
author in this chapter, 494,
note.
-
Sophismes Économiques, great success of
that work, and extract from it, 18;
-
referred to, 124,
note, and 325.
-
Spain, usual rate of interest in, said to
be 8 per cent., 302.
-
Population of, doubles in 106 years, 404.
-
Spoliation and oppression, the sources of
all social dissonances, 318-322.
-
Statistics, Experimental, what meant by,
353-360.
-
Stewart, Sir James, took the same view of
the principle of population which Malthus more formally
enunciated, thirty years before the appearance of the Essay on
Population, 402,
note.
-
Storch, his erroneous view of the
principle of value, 136.
-
His doctrine that value depends on the judgment we form of
utility confuted, 168;
-
Supply often virtually precedes demand, 335.
-
This arises from foresight of producer, ib.
-
Intensity of demand pre-existent, 335.
-
Switzerland, population of, doubles in 227
years, 404.
-
T.
-
Taxation, not necessarily a loss, as
represented by Say, 426,
427,
note.
-
Tracy, M. de, quoted, 106,
107.
-
Turkey, population of, doubles in 555
years, 403.
-
U.
-
Utility, onerous and gratuitous, 69.
-
By substituting gratuitous for onerous utility, progress
annihilates value, ib.
-
Gratuitous, tends to take the place of onerous utility, 90,
91.
-
Mode in which this is effected, 91,
92.
-
Attributing value to utility has led to many errors, 164-167.
-
The term Production employed to designate whatever confers
utility, and Consumption to designate the enjoyment to which
that utility gives rise, 323.
-
What renders service to the masses is utility alone, and value
is not the measure of it, 325;
-
but in the case of the individual, value is the measure of
it, 325,
326.
-
General utility and onerous utility represented by lines of
unequal length; gratuitous utility, by indefinite lines, 328.
-
Utility formerly onerous, now become gratuitous, also
represented by lines, 330.
-
V.
-
Value consists in the comparative
appreciation of reciprocal services, 73.
-
Does not reside in material substances, as represented by
Smith, 91.
-
Vague definition of, 108.
-
Value represents effort, 109.
-
Theory of value, 131.
-
As essential to Political Economy as numeration is to
arithmetic, ib.
-
Value has a tendency to diminish in relation to utility, 132.
-
Does not extend to the co-operation of nature, but is
restricted exclusively to human efforts, 134.
-
A state of isolation excludes the idea of value, ib.
-
Exchange imparts the notion of value, 135.
-
Value is the relation of two services exchanged, ib.
-
Not necessarily proportionate to intensity of efforts, 138.
-
Arises in some cases, not from the effort of the person who
renders the service, but from the effort saved to the person
who receives it, 140,
141.
-
This is a new principle not to be found in any other work on
Political Economy, 141.
-
Intervention of money does not change the principle, 142,
143.
-
Value does not reside in commodities, but in services, 143.
-
Examples of various kinds of services, all possessed of value,
147.
-
Limits within which value oscillates, ib.;
-
The precious metals not a perfect standard of value, as their
own value fluctuates, 151,
152.
-
Value not an attribute of matter, 153.
-
This an error of the Physiocrates and of Adam Smith, and has
given rise to the distinction between productive and
unproductive labour, 153,
154.
-
Value not a thing having independent existence, but a
relation, 158.
-
Value and Labour are not proportional, 159,
160,
note.
-
Measure of value the quadrature of
Political Economy, 170.
-
Fixity cannot be found in a mean term composed of variable
elements, ib.
-
Absolute measure of, a chimera, ib.
-
Value being supposed to be in the material product, and not in
the service, has led to Smith's error as to unproductive
labour, 172.
-
When value passes from service to product, it undergoes, in
product, all the risks and chances to which the service itself
is subject, 176.
-
Prevailing tendency of value incorporated with a commodity is
to fall, 178.
-
Value is the measure of the utility of services rendered to
the individual, not of those rendered to the masses, 325,
326.
-
W.
-
Wages. Men are always in search of
something fixed, 352.
-
Hence the great desire for government offices, 353.
-
Fixity favoured by two circumstances, 354.
-
Illustrations drawn from the principle of fire insurance, 354-357.
-
Remuneration by wages has the principle of fixity, so much
sought after, 357.
-
Opinions of the Socialists on this subject controverted, 357,
358.
-
Wages, their origin, form, and effects, 358.
-
Labour may be remunerated either by share of its product or by
fixed wages, 359.
-
Dependence not caused by form of remuneration, but by
precarious situation of labourer, ib.
-
No men worse off than fishermen and vine-dressers, though they
have the benefits of association, 359,
360.
-
Results of labour applied to the chase, fishing, or
agriculture very uncertain, ib.
-
To obviate this, a fixed unconditional bargain preferred, 360.
-
This is not to destroy, but improve, the principle of
association, ib.
-
Risks appreciated by means of experimental statistics, ib.
-
Remuneration by share of produce characteristic of times of
barbarism, 361.
-
Fixity of remuneration a step of progress, ib.
-
Association not thereby dissolved, ib.
-
Capital and labour both take a share of risk till it can be
estimated by experience, ib.
-
This state of things gives place to a bargain which ensure
unity of direction and fixity of situation, 362.
-
The capitalist may take risk, paying fixed wages, or labourer
may take risk, paying a fixed interest-still there is
association, 362,
363.
-
Wages have nothing degrading in them any more than interest,
363.
-
The one is the remuneration of present, the other of anterior
labour, ib.
-
Such stipulations are the cause and the manifestation of
progress, ib.
-
Socialist errors on this subject confuted, 364,
365.
-
Friendly Societies admirable means of providing against
sickness and old age, 368.
-
Have conferred immense benefits on the working classes, ib.
-
Caisses de Retraite, Friendly
Accumulation Societies, 371-378.
-
Anterior labour, or capital, must necessarily have more
security than present labour, 377-379.
-
Future of the working classes-tendency to become capitalists,
379-383.
-
Progress of the working classes between 1750 and 1850, 381.
-
Relations of the capitalist and labourer, 383.
-
Erroneous notions on this subject most dangerous, 384.
-
Falsest theories abroad, ib.
-
Due to M. de Sismondi and M. Buret, ib.
-
Labourer's share of product has a tendency to increase as
capital increases, 385.
-
When exchange takes place between capital, or anterior labour,
and present labour, it is not on the footing of their duration
or intensity, but of their value, 387.
-
Anterior labour has a general tendency to become depreciated,
388,
389.
-
Presence of capital always beneficial to labourer, 390.
-
Groundless outcry against tyranny of capital, 391,
392.
-
Wants, efforts, and satisfactions,
constitute the domain of Political Economy, 69-74.
-
Wants of man, enumeration of, 75-77.
-
Moral and material, 77.
-
Not a fixed quantity, but progressive and expansive, 79,
80.
-
Rousseau recognises their elasticity, 81.
-
In isolation, wants exceed powers; in the social state, powers
exceed wants, 98.
-
Man has more wants than any other living being, 99.
-
War. Principal thing which imparts to
nations their distinctive character is the manner in which they
provide for their subsistence, 454.
-
Labour, although little noticed by historians, held as
important a place among the ancients as it does with us, 457.
-
War, spoliation, marked difference in the character of a
nation which lives by, 458.
-
It presupposes production, ib.
-
Spoliation in the shape of war has its root in selfishness, 459.
-
Personal interest gives rise to harmony, but there are
disturbing causes, 460.
-
Labour is in itself a good, independent of its results, but we
do not desire it for its own sake, ib.
-
Man, being placed between two evils, want and labour, seeks to
get rid of both, 461.
-
Spoliation then presents itself as a solution of the problem,
ib.
-
War a waste of human power, ib.
-
And the spoliator does not get quit of labour, ib.
-
Checks production by the insecurity it creates, 462.
-
Contrasts between the producer and spoliator, ib.
-
War has been a widespread evil, 462,
463.
-
Interrupts human progress, 463.
-
How the warlike spirit is propagated, ib.
-
How war ends, 464.
-
Water has utility without possessing
value, 138;
-
but if brought from a distance by another, the service has
value, 138,
139.
-
Wealth, natural and social, 73;
-
actual or relative, 180.
-
Relative wealth is measured by value, not utility, 181.
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Ricardo gave to the word Wealth the sense of utility; Say,
that of value, ib.
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Effective wealth, the aggregate utilities which labour, aided
by natural agents, places within our reach, 192.
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Relative wealth, proportional share of each in the general
riches, determined by value, ib.
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Morality of, 193,
194.
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Motive which leads to acquisition of, natural, and
consequently moral, 193.
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Desire to better our circumstances also moral, ib.;
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but if we seek to become rich by injustice, this immoral,
ib.
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Y.
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Youth of France, address to, 33.
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